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THE FUNDAMENTALS 



LIVE STOCK JUDGING 



SELECTION 



BY 

ROBERT S. CURTIS, B.S.A. 

// 

ASSOCIATE CHIEF, ANIMAL INDUSTRY DIVISION, ANIMAL HUSBANDMAN, BEEF 

CATTLE AND SHEEP INVESTIGATIONS, NORTH CAROLINA AGRICULTURAL 

EXPERIMENT STATION, WEST RALEIGH, NORTH CAROLINA 



ILLUSTRATED WITH 180 ENGRAVINGS 




LEA & FEBIGER 

PHILADELPHIA AND NEW YORK 
1915 



&* 






Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1915, by 

LEA & FEBIGER, 
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress. All rights reserved. 



AUG 2! 1915 



'GI.A410175 



r 



TO 
STUDENTS AND STOCKMEN 



No detail is too small to be studied for truth." 

Stevenson. 



PREFACE. 



The recent progress of the teaching of Animal Husbandry, 
especially live stock judging and selection, commends this 
division of the subject to a full modern treatise dealing with 
all domestic animals. Rapid advancement in special fields 
of production and selection, and the addition of new phases 
of animal judging, have furnished much new material for 
the work. 

In developing the subject various viewpoints ranging 
from that of the extensive live stock breeder to the city 
fancier must of necessity be considered. Not only the col- 
lege student and the professional judge, but also the live 
stock breeder, general farmer, salesman, buyer, and the 
city fancier of stock at one time or another inspects animals 
from the standpoint of the critic. He thus becomes the 
judge whether in the show ring or in the field, and when 
the term "judge" is referred to in the text it should be 
understood that it is not specifically used. In certain 
instances attention may be directed to the student or the 
professional judge while in other cases any of the above 
meanings may be inferred. Any individual who selects 
stock is placed in the position of the judge, specifically speak- 
ing, and he should, therefore, be so considered in construing 
the various discussions herein given. 

The improvements of this volume upon former presenta- 
tions of the subject consist in logical groupings of the sub- 
ject matter, as well as many entirely new features of special 

(v) 



Vl PREFACE 

significance. These are brought out mainly in the first 
five chapters dealing with the methods and practices and 
.general principles applicable to the judging and selection 
of all classes of live stock. In the fifth chapter information 
is included relative to important factors or problems of the 
individual, the breeds and the selection of the same, other- 
wise than by an external examination on which student and 
show ring judging is necessarily based. One chapter is 
devoted to the jack, jennet, and mule, since the latter has 
become of great economic importance and former discus- 
sions of the subject have been incomplete. 

A complete and convenient reference to breed descrip- 
tions through photographs and concise breed characteristics 
is included and supplemented with the latest standard of 
excellence and scale of points of each of the important breeds. 
Market and show ring considerations are discussed fully 
because of the tendency toward the more practical phases 
of commercial or market live stock judging. The additions 
include a number of the newer breeds of live stock which 
have recently come into prominence and therefore deserve 
comment. 

The material included herein, especially the breed studies, 
has in certain instances been submitted to prominent authori- 
ties to obtain accurate and impartial criticism. It has been 
the aim of the author to mention only the more important 
phases of the subject, leaving the detailed or exhaustive infor- 
mation for reference reading. It can be readily realized that 
no single volume of this nature can exhaust the information 
available. The work is intended primarily for students, 
farmers and stockmen who wish to become familiar with 
the methods and practices in judging the pure breeds and 
market and show classes of live stock. The subject matter 
has been arranged systematically to facilitate the study of 



PREFACE vn 

particular phases in the judging and selection of the various 
breeds, types and classes. The author hopes that the work 
will fit the needs of the class room, the stockman and the 
general farmer. 

He desires to acknowledge credit to the many books and 
periodicals on Animal Husbandry from which valuable help 
and suggestions were obtained in the preparation of this 
work. He is especially indebted to Carl W. Gay, University 
of Pennsylvania; C. S. Plumb, Ohio State University; 
the late John A. Craig, formerly of Oklahoma Agricultural 
College; Robert Wallace, University of Edinburgh; M. H. 
Reynolds, University of Minnesota; and F. W. Wilder, 
Packing Plant Superintendant, Chicago, 111., for the help 
and suggestions obtained from their works. 

General acknowledgement is hereby given to all other 
sources from which helpful information was obtained. The 
contributions from the various books, pamphlets, bulletins, 
and periodicals dealing with the subject of farm animals has 
been invaluable in the preparation of this work. 

Acknowledgement is due Robert F. Hildebrand, Chicago, 
111., and Schrieber and Sons, Philadelphia, Pa., who, under 
the direction of the author prepared most of the illustrations, 
which are such a valuable source of information in a work of 
this nature. They therefore deserve the special touch which 
the animal photographer only can give them by securing 
the natural pose and position of the subject. 

R. S. C. 

North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, 
West Raleigh, N. C, 1915. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 
The Live Stock Industry 17 

CHAPTER II. 

Relation of Structure to Animal Judging 24 

CHAPTER III. 

The Manifestations of Form, Function, and Capacity 28 

CHAPTER IV. 

Methods and Practices in Judging and Selection .. ., . 35 

CHAPTER V. 

Factors and Principles Applicable to the Judging and 

Selection of Live Stock 57 

CHAPTER VI. 

Judging Horses, Fundamental Considerations .... 89 

CHAPTER VII. 
Judging Draft Horses 113 

CHAPTER VIII. 
Judging Light Horses 133 

CHAPTER IX. 

Judging Jacks, Jennets, and Mules 182 



x CONTENTS 

CHAPTER X. 
Judging Beef and Dual Purpose Cattle 221 

CHAPTER XI. 
Judging Dairy Cattle 271 

CHAPTER XII. 
Judging Swine 317 

CHAPTER XIII. 
Judging Sheep 361 

CHAPTER XIV. 

Application of Judging and Selection to Breeding and 

Finishing Farm Animals 423 

Bibliography 426 

Appendix 429 

Index 445 



LIVE STOCK JUDGING AND SELECTION. 



CHAPTER I. 
THE LIVE STOCK INDUSTRY. 

Method of Development. — The subject of live stock judging 
has become of widespread importance not only through the 
teaching of these courses in agricultural colleges, high 
schools and other institutions but also through the increased 
demand for knowledge among farmers who anticipate 
following some phase of live stock work. Keen competition 
among breeders and vendors of market animals has placed 
the subject on a high plane. The real constructive breeder, 
whose work is generally unappreciated, has perfected beauty 
and utility of form which is responsible in the main for 
revolutionizing the live stock breeding industry. Compara- 
tively few people appreciate the improvement which has 
been made in animal form thereby owing to the priority 
of original development. A full realization of the im- 
provement may be readily recognized, however, by com- 
paring the original long-horn steer with the symmetrical, 
deep-set, well-developed, compact form of the modern 
bullock. 

This change from the lank, rangy animal to the close 
compact form has been accomplished step by step. It 
represents the work of more than a century and the guidance 
of men who had clear mental pictures of what the ideal 
animal should be. It represents the guidance of men who 
have, through their own originality, principally, been able to 
grasp, direct and mould the consequent forces of heredity. 
2 (17) 



18 THE LIVE STOCK INDUSTRY 

This work represents the result of judgment and selection 
of animal form through which a gradual and persistent 
improvement has been made possible. It may be com- 
pared to two animals with widely varying marks of merit, 
the one representing the acme of modern development, 
and the other an animal of the same breed a decade prior. 
These visual pictures enabled the breeder to foresee what 
proper moulding of animal form would bring a decade hence. 
The breeders who, through their superlative genius, brought 
about these improvements are among the highest and most 
renowned judges of animal form. They not only painted 
visual pictures of what art later accomplished, but they 
were able to recognize readily the good and the bad and 
thereby eliminate the unpromising from their future breeding 
work. This is the same principle by which a modern 
judge selects the ideal type in a class and graduates the 
remainder of the animals in their respective positions or 
order of merit. 

Fields for Development. — The subject of live stock judging 
and selection may be divided into two distinct divisions, 
the one representing the pure breeds of live stock used 
for foundation or reproductive and improvement purposes; 
and the other animals possessing commercial attributes as 
found in these breeds, either in the pure bred, cross bred or 
grade form when grouped in their proper type or market 
classes. Breeds represent the product of definite foundation 
blood, soil, climate, feeds, certain objects or purposes and 
the fancy of the various constructive breeders. While 
in most instances in the various types and classes of stock 
several breeds may conform closely to a specific purpose, 
almost invariably there are special characteristics which 
make one or the other excel under changed environment, 
purpose or condition. They may do likewise from the stand- 
point of market requirements which should be the nucleus 
of all live stock improvement. It is this last analysis of 
an animal in ascribing its fitness for work or for the block 
in which the majority of stockmen are interested. Breed 
type is important to the producer of pure bred breeding 
stock, but market type is of greater importance to the pro- 



IMPORTANCE OF KEEN JUDGING AND SELECTION 19 

ducer of market animals. These two special phases of ani- 
mal improvement have opened two distinct fields for work 
and consequently a need for definitely arranged information 
on the subject. 

Importance of Keen Judging and Selection. — The rapid 
development of the live stock industry for special productive 
purposes and for farm land improvement makes it not only 
desirable but profitable to have a thorough knowledge of live 
stock judging and selection. The importance of this state- 
ment can be more fully realized after becoming acquainted 
with the magnitude and monetary value of the industry. 
The loss from an individual animal through inferior breeding, 
careless selection, or improper feeding may be small, and 
therefore not seriously affect the breeder or owner. If 
this loss was occasioned, however, in a large herd over a 
long period of years, it would mean the loss of a substantial 
sum. Considering that faults in animal form can be largely 
overcome by wise judging and selection without entailing 
any appreciable additional outlay of money, the importance 
of the subject should be doubly emphasized or appreciated. 
The decrease in the finished weight of fat cattle at nine of the 
leading live stock markets in 1912 shows an average shortage 
of 18 pounds per head. Based on the total number of animals 
shipped to these markets, there was a total decrease of 
144,793,620 pounds of beef. This loss could have been 
largely overcome by either closer selection or better methods 
of feeding. While other causes may have been responsible 
for the condition, it serves to illustrate the importance of 
keen judging and selection. Based on all the cattle slaugh- 
tered for a period of ten or twenty years the figures would be 
almost insurmountable. 

It would be even more important to remedy the defects of 
the breeding animal than in the market animal because the 
former would continue to reproduce the undesirable char- 
acteristics. This factor of inferiority would be of great 
importance, however, even in market animals for the lack 
of only a few pounds gain, due either to faulty selection or 
feeding of the individual, would mean a large loss in the 
aggregate. 



20 



THE LIVE STOCK INDUSTRY 




Value of Domestic Animals. — The magnitude of the live 
stock industry can best be understood by citing the figures 
giving; the value of these animals on the farms of the United 



POSSIBILITIES OF INDUSTRY 21 

States. * The Census for 1910 gives the following value of 
the various kinds of live stock maintained: 

Kind of stock. Number. Value. 

Horses 19,833,113 $2,083,588,195 

Jacks, jennets, and mules . . 4,315,737 538,591,975 

Cattle 61,803,866 1,499,523,607 

Sheep 52,447,861 232,841,585 

Swine 58,185,676 399,338,308 



Total 196,586,253 $4,753,883,670 

These figures are sufficient to indicate the vast economic 
importance of the live stock industry. Live stock judging 
and selection has maintained an important part in developing 
the industry to its present magnitude and importance, 
both from the standpoint of numbers and value. How 
much greater the value would have been through keener 
methods and practices in judging and selection, it would be 
difficult to ascertain. Suffice it to say, however, that the 
increase in quality which might have been attained by better 
methods and practices would have reduced the cost of keep 
materially as measured in terms of the finished value of the 
product. As this is the problem in which the live stock 
husbandman is interested, the application of better methods 
would not only increase the quality of the product from a 
connoisseur's standpoint, but add profit as well to the 
industry. 

Possibilities of Industry. — The figures given above illus- 
trate the possibility of securing increased revenue by more 
careful judging and selection and better ultimate handling 
and management. The opinion is thoroughly conversant 
and borne out by facts that it does not require any more 
to maintain an animal with a high order of merit than it 
does an inferior one. Based on this statement, an average 
increase in weight of one pound on all kinds of domestic 
animals hereafter considered, exclusive of horses, mules, and 
asses, would mean an increase of 172,437,403 1 pounds of 
edible meats. It is readily imaginable how this increase could 
be obtained by closer selection alone. From these figures it 

1 United States Census, 1910. 



22 THE LIVE STOCK INDUSTRY 

is not difficult to perceive the wonderful possibilities of close 
judging and selection of animal form. The average value of 
horses per head in 1910 was $105. 06, 1 and while this includes 
young stock, it would be possible to increase their value 50 
per cent, by more careful judging, selection, and ultimate 
management. Other classes of animals are equally suscep- 
tible to the same amount of improvement under like 
conditions. 

It is recognized that it is impossible to ascribe all of the 
possible improvement in weight, form, and quality or other 
attributes to keen judging and selection, yet breeders and 
students of animal form readily recognize its importance. 
The foundation for profit in live stock farming is substantially 
based on the type of animal selected for breeding, work, 
or for direct meat productive purposes. Ill-bred animals, 
which means careless selection largely, are attributed as 
being generally unprofitable, either for breeding or feeding 
purposes. Close scrutinized judgment in selection could 
not remove all the faults of animal form at once but its 
continuance would be clearly apparent for a substantial 
period of years. Proper application of the principles of 
judging and selection would not only remedy many destroy- 
ing influences in live stock production, but it would increase 
or improve almost without apparent cost the world's total 
supply of meat, milk and wool, and form, quality, and effi- 
ciency in work and pleasure animals. 

Faculties and Requirements in Judging. — There are two 
special faculties necessary to select or judge accurately a 
class of live stock. These are, first, a proper knowledge of 
what constitutes the utility points which are judged, either 
from a breeding standpoint, or from that of market and 
show requirements; and second, a quick and keen observance 
of both the major and minor faults in animal form. Craig 
states that "When a distinct ideal based on the best types 
and their highest qualities has been formed in the mind, and 
this is supported by a discriminating eye, it is but another 
step to render a correct judgment." 

1 United States Census, 1910. 



FACULTIES AND REQUIREMENTS IN JUDGING 23 

This increased activity and keen competition in modern 
judging is due to the success which constructive breeders 
have attained as students of live stock problems. The 
science of breeding, feeding, and development was formerly 
considered too simple for a study of the scientific roads of 
improvement. Live stock breeders and feeders, however, 
are awakening to the fact that it takes brain as well as brawn 
to produce prize-winning animals. Not since the days of 
the Collings, Booth, Bates and Cruikshank, have stockmen 
realized the depth of the problems in live stock selection, 
breeding, and feeding. 

The real student of judging and selection must be 
practical and keen sighted to attain success, either as a judge 
or as a breeder. Since this is the final test of the breeder's 
art, the student of judging and selection must have clearly 
in mind the ideal animal for the various purposes intended in 
the breeding or commercial world. Not until he has dis- 
tinctly mastered these details of utility, and becomes keenly 
alive to the minor differences in all parts of animal form, 
can he expect to be classed as a dependable live stock critic. 



CHAPTER II. 

RELATION OF STRUCTURE TO ANIMAL JUDGING. 

In animal judging there are special fundamental attributes 
or attainments, the value of which must be fixed or measured 
in terms of the animal mechanism to be defined or studied. 
Without a knowledge of these fundamental problems and 
their relation to the particular type of animal involved 
judging and selection of live stock would be at best a hap- 
hazard undertaking. The following representation of these 
fundamentals is not exhaustive, yet it emphasizes the impor- 
tance of having a knowledge of the specialized foundation 
structure and its correlated parts. 

PURPOSE OF ANIMAL MECHANISM. 

The purpose of animal mechanism varies widely. Animals 
are produced for draft, speed, show, pleasure, meat, milk, 
and wool. In certain instances these purposes or uses 
may be combined in the same animal, as described subse- 
quently. In the first four instances, wherein special reference 
is made to the horse, the general form of the machine is 
the same, although the purpose or adaptation is at a wide 
variance. The difference is largely in the details of structure, 
the mastery of which constitutes one of the main funda- 
mentals of animal judging. 

Meat is ordinarily obtained from three sources in domesti- 
cated animals. However, that of the best quality is a pro- 
duct of an animal bred specially for the purpose. The beef 
animal, the fat and bacon hog, and the mutton sheep produce 
what may be termed a specific product. Milk is obtained 
from an animal differing more widely in form and mechanism 
than any of those classed as food-producing animals. Meat 
obtained from a milk-producing animal may be classed as a 
(24) 



RELATION OF PERFORMANCE AND PRODUCTION 25 

by-product. Although a large proportion of meat products 
are ultimately obtained from this source, the dairy animal 
possesses a specific type and has a specific function in milk 
production. Its purpose must therefore be so defined, and any 
surplus obtained in meat or otherwise should be classed as a 
by-product. In the dual purpose animal, the meat and milk- 
giving functions are supposed to be equally correlated. The 
degree of manifestation in either is arbitrary with the 
breeder who may change the ratio of production by a simple 
modification of the type through the natural source of 
selection and reproduction. The sheep may be classed as a 
dual purpose machine in one instance and as a specific 
machine in the other. The mutton breeds of sheep are 
bred for a specific purpose, although their wool is an impor- 
tant by-product. In the strictly wool-producing breeds, the 
mutton is a by-product being analogous in this respect to 
meat from a dairy animal. 

The animal mechanism must of necessity vary greatly to 
perform or manifest these various phases of production. 
The relation between the machine and production is intimate 
and it is only by having a definite knowledge of the former 
that conformity to purpose or the power of production can 
be accurately measured. 

RELATION OF MECHANISM TO PERFORMANCE AND 
PRODUCTION. 

The form which an animal assumes is an embodiment of 
the inner or unseen structure, more specifically of the bone 
and muscle development. It is these two fundamentals 
that directly or indirectly determine size, shape, locomotion, 
compactness and disengagement or looseness of structure. 
The draft horse is low set, massive, and compact. This 
condition is a direct result of the structural units in the 
mechanism. Every condition of development is a manifesta- 
tion of what the completed animal will be. The broad 
head, the short thick neck, the broad breast and deep chest, 
the wide, deep body and the full massive quarters are funda- 
mental in the aquisition of weight, which is one of the chief 



26 RELATION OF STRUCTURE TO ANIMAL JUDGING 

requisites of draft horse attainments. These qualifications 
are direct exponents of the principal nuclear structure which 
is the bony framework. 

The speed horse is the direct opposite of the draft animal. 
Both the bones and muscles are longer, attaining a smaller 
diameter and therefore a greater manifestation of speed, 
which is directly associated with qualifications which possess 
or exhibit reach or extension. The structural development 
of other types of horses are modifications or combinations 
of the two types described. The degree of modification 
measures their utility, whether they still retain draft or 
speed qualifications or assume entirely new attainments 
characteristic of other distinct types of horses. 

Likewise the beef and dairy animal, the fat and bacon 
hog, and mutton and wool-producing sheep are measured in 
value by their conformity to type standards which have 
been determined the most economical for productive pur- 
poses. The mechanism which, grossly defined, includes the 
bone and muscle development, determines the value of an 
animal. This is true, however, only when the more vital 
functions are working in perfect harmony with these two 
fundamentals of animal formation. Without proper nerve 
force or development, circulatory, digestive or reproductive 
functions, the gross materials which give size, shape, and 
locomotion would be of no value. 

Gross Structural Material. — The bones and muscles are 
substantially the foundation upon which all animals are 
constructed. It is important, therefore, to have a clear 
conception of the part which these gross structural materials 
play in giving size and shape to the animal. The ultimate 
value of a dressed animal, for example, is directly dependent 
on the amount and quality of edible products obtained. The 
framework of the horse is equally important, as strength, 
durability, and longevity are closely associated with the at- 
tainments in this respect other than the part which they play 
in the formation of size and shape in the finished animal. 

The muscles of an animal are directly related to the 
attainments of power, speed, and meat production, but 
more specifically to the latter. Short, thick muscles char- 



RELATION OF PERFORMANCE AND PRODUCTION 27 

acterize the draft animal; long and thin muscles the speed 
animal. The fundamental purpose of the muscular system 
is to operate the bones. The secondary function is to give 
shape and a certain degree of finish to the animal. A careful 
study of the skeleton and muscles will reveal that much of 
the animal form is determined by the mass of muscles, 
especially in certain parts. In other regions animal form is 
characterized largely by the development of the bony frame- 
work. A knowledge of these relations is of extreme im- 
portance to the student of animal form. 

Special and Combined Functions. — Specific functions char- 
acterize animals which are bred for one definite purpose, 
although they may produce liberally in other directions. 
Animals of the special type are easily depicted or measured 
in performance or productive value. Every part of their 
structure is perfected toward one definite end. Every attain- 
ment in the structural development is a manifestation of 
some definite purpose. Where there is thus no division 
of energy it is comparatively easy to make an alignment of 
values. 

The dual purpose animal is bred for two purposes, both 
of which must be embodied in the animal form. This 
represents an average development, theoretically, or a com- 
bination of two special functions. For example, beef and 
milk, and mutton and wool represent the two commonly 
accepted dual purpose functions or standards. The equation 
of value must be measured in such animals by their specific 
structural development. Although it is recognized that high 
milk production, extreme speed, or unusual block tests are 
antagonized in two purpose animals because of the alteration 
of structure necessary to harmonize or equalize these two 
purposes, they have a place in animal production. Student 
judging should so depict every purpose, relation, structural 
development and special and combined functions that a 
perfectly clear analysis of these factors may be made before 
undertaking a decision in any class of animals. Otherwise 
gross errors may occur under the best of reasoning power. 
A broad working foundation, an accepted ideal, and a logical 
mind are herein extremely essential. 



CHAPTER III. 

THE MANIFESTATIONS OF FORM, FUNCTION, 
AND CAPACITY. 

The practical stockman is not directly interested with the 
intricate mechanism and development of the animal organ- 
ism, yet there are certain manifestations of form, function, 
and capacity which stamp the value of an animal in its 
various phases of use and development. The value of an 
animal to the stockman is largely determined by the forma- 
tion of the anatomy of the bony framework, the muscular 
development, the digestive system, the circulatory system, 
the mammary organs, the reproductive system, and the 
nervous development. Because of the close association of 
these attributes, from the standpoint of the stockman, a 
deficiency or weakness in development of any one would 
retard growth and normal development in the individual 
and sacrifice what otherwise might be cardinal points in 
breed, type or class attainments. An analysis, therefore, 
of their utility value is important. 

Bony Framework. — The bony framework is a measure of 
the height and weight or scale which will be attained by an 
animal. Unless an animal possesses a foundation or frame- 
work whereon the muscular system may normally develop the 
ultimate size at maturity will be materially decreased. The 
sleek-bodied colt, the short, round body of the calf and 
the small, early maturing hog are indicative of insuffi- 
cient capacity as associated with bone development. The 
size which an animal attains can be no greater than the 
maximum number of structural units which are normally 
present in the framework. An animal may be forced on the 
right kinds of feeds and thus induce greater development. 
However, such a method of feeding would not always be 
(28) 



MUSCULAR DEVELOPMENT 29 

prudent or profitable. In selecting live stock, therefore, 
special consideration should be given to the indications of 
normal development at maturity. 

The size of the bone as exemplified in the canon of the 
horse, and in the leg of the steer, the hog, and the sheep are 
directly associated with the size and weight of an animal 
at maturity. The animal which inclines to fatten early 
in life before normal development has been reached does 
not possess the structural units to perfect normal maturity 
upon which the profits from live stock usually depend. In- 
dications of the probable development are in evidence in 
the condition which an animal assumes as related to bone, 
muscle, and fat formation. The young animal or the 
matured animal low in condition indicate their probable 
maximum attainments by the character of the framework. 
While the spare, open development is characteristic only of 
the dairy animal, a certain degree of it is necessary in the 
other types in order that they may attain the maximum 
degree of size, form and finish. Early fattening qualities, 
except under certain specialized conditions, such as in the 
baby beef animal or other early market maturing quali- 
fications, as fixed by farm practice, are antagonistic to 
maximum development. Animal attainments relating to size 
are measured almost entirely by the foundation structure 
imposed in the bony framework. 

Muscular Development. — With the exception of the dairy 
cow and wool sheep, the value of domestic animals is directly 
or indirectly dependent on the degree of muscle formation. 
The value of the beef animal, the mutton sheep, and the 
fat or bacon hog is directly dependent on this attribute. 
The value of the draft horse, heavy and light harness horses, 
saddle horses and ponies are dependent on this qualifica- 
tion, yet in each the manifestation of it is developed in a 
different form of energy or work. In the dairy cow and 
the wool sheep the muscular development is of secondary 
importance because the usefulness of these animals is meas- 
ured by their capacity to produce products not dependent 
on the degree of muscle formation. The dairy cow produces 
milk, the maximum degree of muscle and fat formation 



30 FORM, FUNCTION, AND CAPACITY 

being directly antagonistic to the maximum degree of milk 
production. The wool sheep is measured in value by its 
output of wool, regardless of its value from the mutton 
standpoint. The value of the horse is measured in terms of 
muscular development, although the kind of work and its 
degree of attainment is greatly different from that expected 
in meat-producing animals. The character of the muscular 
system is a measure of work in some form, yet association 
with other attributes should be clearly fixed because of the 
final balance of the manifestations enumerated under form, 
function, and capacity. 

Digestive System. — The digestive system of an animal is 
of specific importance because an animal grows and becomes 
useful to a degree dependent on the amount of food consumed 
and its elaboration or manifestation in the various forms of 
animal energy, whether it is meat, milk, wool, or horse 
power. The measure of value in an animal is therefore 
determined by the digestive capacity to a degree depending 
on the character of energy to be produced. The manifesta- 
tion of a strong digestive system is evidenced in the length, 
depth and width of the barrel, this in turn being influenced 
largely by the maximum degree of development possible 
in the bony framework. The direct association of this 
attribute with constitution, vigor, and general capacity is 
readily apparent from an analysis of these various factors 
in detail. 

Circulatory System. — The bony framework, the muscular 
development and the digestive system constitute the gross 
attainments necessary for an animal to assume shape and 
continue normal development when properly associated 
with the other life-giving functions. From the stockman's 
point of view there is nothing more important than the 
circulatory system on which life-giving depends directly, 
and in one instance the development of a specific function, 
namely, the milk-giving capacity of the dairy cow. In 
formulating the value of a dairy animal one of the chief 
requisites for consideration is the degree of development 
of the circulatory system, especially as evidenced in the 
mammary system. The elaboration of milk from the gross 



REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM OR BREEDING CAPACITY 31 

food products to the finished product is vitally connected 
with the circulatory system, as the blood carries the elements 
of milk elaboration. The stimulation received, therefore, 
from the blood supply measures quite accurately the capacity 
of an animal and the profits which will be obtained therefrom. 
Although the evidence of a strong blood supply is especially 
significant in the dairy animal, it is of no less importance in 
the animal which is used for draft, light harness or saddle 
work, or in those animals which are used directly for food- 
producing purposes. The blood supply and the energy which 
it carries in the way of assimilated food materials is all 
manifested in some specific way no matter what the character 
of work to be performed. The amount and continuity of 
work is thus measured by the circulatory system which 
carries the elements or products of energy to the specific 
place of use. 

Mammary Organs. — The mammary organs or the mam- 
mary glands are of special significance in the dairy cow 
wherein stimulation of milk-giving capacity has been in- 
creased by breeding, selection, and by the administration 
of proper food materials. Although it is in the dairy animal 
that the most vital consideration is usually given to the 
mammary organs, they must, of necessity, become a con- 
sideration, either in the meat-giving or work-producing 
animals. The difference in the degree of development in 
these three broad classes of animals is not as great as might 
be first suspected. The dairy cow is measured by her milk- 
giving capacity, the meat-producing animals by the amount 
and quality of the meat products which they elaborate, and 
the work-producing animals by the quality of the offspring 
as suited to the production of energy or work in their various 
phases of development. The mammary system should be 
considered, therefore, as an important part of animal attain- 
ments regardless of the specific use of the product obtained 
from the individual or future generations. 

Reproductive System or Breeding Capacity. — The measure 
of value in a breeding animal is largely centered in its capacity 
to reproduce like attainments of the individual in question. 
The reproductive system, therefore, becomes an important 



32 FORM, FUNCTION, AND CAPACITY 

problem in analyzing animal value. The breeding animal 
should clearly indicate its capacity for the reproduction of 
not only its attainments as a pure bred, but also as exemplified 
in the market animal. The consideration of the reproductive 
functions from the standpoint of the breeder is one of practical 
value. In making a study of the individual its probable 
reproductive powers should be considered in conjunction 
with the intrinsic value of the animal itself. It is only when 
these two factors are properly correlated that a breeding 
animal can transmit to its maximum capacity the qualities 
which are of vital importance to the breeder in the reproduc- 
tion of pure bred animals and the production of market 
individuals with an outcome. 

Nervous Development. — The nervous system or nervous 
development of an animal may be divided into the nervous 
or highly organized, the lymphatic, and the sluggish tem- 
peraments. Each of the three is characterized in various 
individuals representing the breeds of domestic animals. 
A nervous temperament is characteristic of the dairy 
animal in which all of the energy from the food materials 
is manufactured into milk with the exception of that used 
in body and reproductive maintenance. The typical dairy 
cow is spare and lean in conformation, as this condition is 
evidence that the food is being used as indicated above. A 
highly developed nervous organization is as closely associated 
with maximum milk production as the lymphatic or less 
active temperament is associated with fat production. The 
two are antagonistic, one representing the result of elimina- 
tion, as evidenced in high milk production, and the other in 
accumulation, as evidenced in muscle and fat formation. 
Indication that food is being so used is as much a part of 
animal attainments as a strong, healthy digestive or cir- 
culatory system on which life directly depends. 

The sluggish temperament is the lowest form of nervous 
development and one which should not be directly asso- 
ciated with any specific type of animal. Manifestation of 
a sluggish temperament is an attribute not to be desired. 
It is suggestive of lack in constitution, a weak circulatory 
system, and improperly associated nerve development, The 



NERVOUS DEVELOPMENT 33 

fat animal which manifests or shows a sluggish temperament 
may, from one standpoint, apparently be a profitable animal. 
When balanced, however, with the other attributes of chief 
importance to the stockman, the animal possessing such a 
quality is not a desirable specimen for reproductive or 
market use. The lack of nerve force is evidenced in one way 
or another and will ultimately depreciate an animal in value 
to the extent of the insufficient nerve force manifested. 



CHAPTER IV. 

METHODS AND PRACTICES IN JUDGING AND 
SELECTION. 

Definition. — Live stock judging, strictly defined, refers to 
a determination of the value of a single animal or the com- 
parative value of a class of animals for a specialized purpose.- 
The individual animal may be judged in a similar manner 
to a class of animals, yet the student in so doing must have 
learned to attain, either through practical experience or 
college training, a fixed mental picture of an animal which 
conforms to the established ideal of the type in question. 
In reality, therefore, one animal may form a class as the 
ideal animal, or a standard of comparison must always be 
clearly fixed in the mind before judging or fixation of value 
logically begins. In judging or ranking animals, the problem 
is to establish a rating or rank according to the conformity 
to the ideal, and from this affix a productive or market 
value, the latter being the final test of block animals. 
Whether the animal is considered from the standpoint of 
breed, show, work, or for the block, there is a fixed value 
which depends on the breeding, individuality and the 
environment to which the animal has been subjected. 
These are the main points or factors of development with 
which the student must familiarize himself before judging, 
in its strictest sense or selection, based on ancestry and per- 
formance records, may be accurately performed. 

Live stock judging, broadly defined, may be considered 
from the standpoint of comparative show yard placing, where 
exterior qualifications or characteristics are the only guides, 
or from the standpoint of individual herd or flock merit 
based both on individual characteristics and performance 
records. The work of the student, in making comparative 

(35) 



36 METHODS IN JUDGING AND SELECTION 

or show yard placings, may be specifically considered animal 
judging, his opinion being based solely on exterior character- 
istics. The work of actually detecting the best individuals 
in the herd from their ancestry and actual performance 
records may be considered animal selection. It is rather 
unfortunate, especially with certain classes of animals, that 
the latter cannot be successfully carried out in show ring 
judging. In facilitating the passing of judgment on animals, 
therefore, the student judge must learn to detect the points 
which indicate value for special productive purposes. The 
determination of the value of animals through the form or 
conformation lies at the basis of successful and popularly 
so termed live, stock judging. 

Objects. — The main objects in judging live stock are 
twofold. First, the detection of the characteristics which 
fit animals for breeding or reproduction; and second, for 
work, broadly defined, or for the block. While the two 
purposes are in a sense closely related, from the viewpoint 
of the judge, there are important differences which should 
not be overlooked. The breeding animal, for example, should 
be judged from the standpoint of present individual excel- 
lence, and the likely transmission and continuity of these 
characteristics to the offspring. In judging an animal for 
the block, any future usefulness beyond the fattening or 
finishing period may be entirely disregarded, since the 
present intrinsic value of the animal to the butcher is the 
real paramount factor for consideration. 

Animal Knowledge. — The increasing magnitude of student 
and show yard judging has brought into employment certain 
customs in establishing the value or rating on the numerous 
classes of animals coming before the eye of the judge. While 
the exterior characteristics are not absolutely reliable 
guides, more especially in breeding animals, a history and 
knowledge of the performance of other similarly made 
animals and keen detection of their merits or faults will 
enable the student to form very accurate conclusions in 
the judging ring. 

In judging breeding animals there is no absolute assurance 
that certain desirable characteristics will be transmitted. 



IDEALS, QUALIFICATIONS, AND CONSISTENCY 37 

Former records of other animals of like conformation must 
be used as a guide or basis for passing judgment or opinion. 
This is in reality the basis of all live stock judging, as the 
accomplishments of one animal under certain known con- 
ditions may reasonably be expected to obtain under like 
conditions in other instances. If it were not for this infor- 
mation which has been accumulated, either in writing or 
through the teaching of practical stockmen and college 
live stock judges, the subject would not have attained it's 
present magnitude or accuracy. It is only by correlation 
of individual characteristics, as measured by the success of 
other animals and actual records, that any assurance may be 
obtained regarding the value of an animal as a breeder. 
When judging direct fitness for the block or for dairy purposes 
all breeding and ancestral records may be disregarded as all 
practical evidences of utility and quality are largely visible 
on the exterior of the animal. This, however, has been made 
possible only by careful studies of the conformation of work, 
milk, and meat-producing qualities of other similar animals. 
Ideals, Qualifications, and Consistency. — The beginner in 
live stock judging must necessarily acquire a definite working 
knowledge of the principles on which stock judging is based. 
He should learn the peculiar structural form of the various 
types, breeds, and classes by studying each animal individ- 
ually. By so doing, he is soon able to correlate the various 
parts and thereby fix the individual as a whole in its relation 
as applied to the various standards of excellence employed. 
In the show ring the method of procedure is different. It 
is not a question necessarily of depicting the minuteness of 
form, or becoming acquainted with the various structural 
parts or units. The judge of long experience grasps and 
analyzes the form of the animal or animals as a whole and 
makes the alignment according to merit or conformity to the 
standard of excellence used for the type or breed in question. 
The requirements are that the animal coming closest to the 
ideal standard be selected to head the class. Thereafter, 
each of the others should be placed according to the degree 
of conformity with the animal selected as possessing the most 
ideal type qualification. 



38 METHODS IN JUDGING AND SELECTION 

A judge should have a clear, concise idea of each standard 
with which he is expected to compare and place competing 
animals. Unless he is thoroughly acquainted with these 
standards it is impossible to determine which of the animals 
in the class should be taken for the ideal or standard. One 
of the frequent troubles encountered at the smaller live 
stock shows and fairs throughout the country is the lack of 
an adequate classification providing for the separation of 
each distinct type and breed. Wherever such a condition 
exists there can be no true standard, and consequently np 
justification in the methods of judging pursued or the 
decisions made. Ideals are the foundation of equity and 
justice in live stock shows. Unless the judge has an adequate 
classification whereby he may establish an ideal and place 
the animals according to their degree of conformity, his work 
will necessarily be faulty. It is impossible to judge a Stand- 
ardbred and a Percheron in the same class, because an ideal 
must be selected or a definite purpose adhered to in a written 
or mental standard of excellence. Where two distinct 
breeds of such varying conformation compete against each 
other this is manifestly impossible, as no two animals with 
extreme breed types can have an equal or even a close 
relationship with any single standard of excellence. 

Type and Breed Standards. — Live stock judging as ordinarily 
practised in the show ring or by prospective buyers is not 
accomplished by the aid of the score card. However, most 
colleges have adopted a system of score card judging, 
especially for beginners in the subject. This is done to 
familiarize the student with the various structural parts of 
the animal and to fix in the mind the relative importance 
of them. For college work score cards are usually arranged 
to cover the types of animals and not individual breeds. 
This enables the student to become familiar with the various 
types of horses, cattle, sheep, and swine. After these basic 
principles of type have been mastered a fuller and better 
understanding of the various breed characteristics may be 
obtained by consulting breed standards of excellence adopted 
by the registry associations or by reading descriptive litera- 
ture on the subject. 



SCORE CARD JUDGING 39 

Most breed associations, with the exception of horse 
registry organizations, have adopted a standard of excellence 
and scale of points for the breed represented. Usually it is 
not practical to use these standards for show yard or market 
judging. They serve as an important guide and not as 
an absolute standard for practical judging, except in 
special cases, such as scoring for advanced registry in dairy 
cattle. 

Score Card Judging. — From the viewpoint of the student 
judge, there are three well-defined methods of arriving at 
the value of an individual or a class of animals. The first 
is by the score card method, the second by examination which 
is followed by oral or written comparisons, as practised in 
advanced classes of live stock judging, and the third by 
simply placing the animals in their comparative order of 
merit, as practised in the show ring. Each of these methods, 
after the first, is perfected by having attained proficiency in 
the preceding one. The score card is not adapted to practical 
live stock judging, it being used solely as a means to an end. 
The score card system of judging is used in the class room 
primarily to instruct beginners in the fundamental art of 
judging. Its principal value is in teaching the location and 
value of the various parts of an animal. After proficiency 
is obtained in this part of the work, the score card is usually 
replaced by more advanced methods and practices. 

Practically the only value of the score card, aside from 
that mentioned, is its use in standardizing the value of an 
individual animal. It is used for this purpose largely by 
dairy cattle record associations in conjunction with advanced 
registry tests. Certain score card requirements are often 
employed by these associations in measuring the value of 
both male and female animals. In reality the score card 
is not practicable in live stock judging because a complete 
balance of points or a true decision cannot always be logically 
obtained. If there was a fixed unit of value to each part of 
the animal, regardless of the development of other correlated 
parts, such a method might be satisfactorily employed. 
However, the value of an animal varies greatly for special 
purposes, this depending on the relative degree of perfection 



40 



METHODS IN JUDGING AND SELECTION 




SHOW RING JUDGING 41 

of the related parts, thus making it impossible to establish 
fixed units of value. 

Comparative Judging. — The method of judging by com- 
parison is the logical result of score card proficiency. After 
the details of location, names and the value of the various 
parts of the animal organism are once mastered, a class of 
animals may be placed in their comparative order of merit 
and the reasons for so doing written or given orally. The 
former method is usually employed in the beginning to per- 
fect briefness and accuracy. In the employment of the com- 
parative method of judging it is necessary to have not only 
a clear idea of animal form, but also a logical mind in form- 
ing a complete or true balance of points among the animals 
under judgment. Numerous questions usually arise per- 
taining to the value of animal conformation in its relation to 
the various factors which must be considered. As there is 
no fixed rule which can be followed in these cases it is neces- 
sary for the student to have a clear conception of the 
value of various animal conformations in the many relations 
which they assume in the class room and on the farm. It is 
for this reason principally that score card judging is not the 
most satisfactory method to employ. It is this balance of 
the practical or productive capacity which must be considered 
in judging animals for specialized purposes. Comparative 
judging of individuals entails a complete harmonious balance 
of points which cannot give unjust or untrue decisions if 
based on fixed fundamental principles. 

Show Ring Judging. — Show ring judging is a practical 
repetition of the work of the student in the class room, with 
the exception that reasons are usually not given for the rating 
of the animals, although from an educational viewpoint 
such a course would be practical and highly desirable. 
Modern show ring judging is based entirely on the evidences 
of utility and quality exhibited in the external characteristics. 
Blood lines are considered only to the extent which the 
animal shows improved breeding and pronounced individual- 
ity. Otherwise, animals are judged and ranked according 
to their individuality at the time judgment is passed.. Form 
and quality, in the broad sense, include all essential considera- 



42 METHODS IN JUDGING AND SELECTION 

tions in the show ring, as they exhibit in one way or another 
the possession or absence of the characteristics defined under 
all subdivisions considered in judging animal form. These 
two characteristics are inseparable from the viewpoint of 
the critic. The form varies according to purpose or utility, 
but if the correct form is fixed in the mind and the meaning 
of quality is clearly understood the fundamentals of judging 
are largely mastered. Gross faults in one or the other 
means a serious defect, and consequently the show ring 
judge is critical in his estimate of these factors. It is only 
in judging the horse, where action is a prime requisite, that 
the judge varies from these two broad standard qualifications. 

The essentials for successful student or show ring judging 
are a keen vision in analyzing animal form, in the broad sense, 
and detecting the most devious faults therein. A fault once 
seen in an animal should be indelibly stamped on the mind and 
the degree of faultiness clearly fixed. Unless such a plan is 
pursued, the judge not only becomes entangled in his original 
impressions but tiring of the judgment through prolonged 
decisions is apt to render them even more faulty. A steady 
and fixed purpose, alert detection of merit and faults, and 
prompt, yet deliberate decisions are responsible for making a 
successful show ring judge. 

Fundamental Requirements in Judging. — Judging involves 
the possession of five attributes or attainments. These 
will be considered in their order. 

Utility Requirements . — It is necessary to have a definite 
knowledge concerning the use or utility of the animal. 
Every factor or part directly or indirectly related to the 
purpose or productive end should be mastered. Merit 
as related to the type, breed, or class, must be firmly fixed 
in the mind. Every requirement of the animal or animals 
in question must be clear to measure value accurately. 
This involves a broad foundation knowledge in animal breed- 
ing and work, meat, market, show, and speed requirements. 

Keen Observation. — The accuracy of a decision in the show 
ring, feed lot or stock yard, where many decisions are daily 
intuitively made, is largely dependent on the powers of 
observation. The good and the bad points, whether gross 



FUNDAMENTAL REQUIREMENTS IN JUDGING 43 

or largely apparent, should be detected with promptness. 
The possession or acquirement of this faculty is not alwaj^s 
deep seated, yet it is a foundation principle in live stock 
judging. The degree of possession or attainment of keen 
observation measures one of the important attributes of a 
keen live stock judge. 

Comparative Qualities. — The individual animal is measured 
by a standard, which may be real, written or pictured in the 
mind or on canvas. Under any condition, it is the standard 
by which the judge pronounces the value of an animal. 
In a class a comparison of the animals under judgment is of 
greatest concern to the judge. While the written or oral 
standard is involved in selecting the best individual in the 
class, thereafter this individual becomes the ideal by which 
the other animals are rated. Comparison not only involves 
a strict analysis of the form of each animal, but a comparison 
of the simultaneously located parts to determine the com- 
parative degree of merit. This comparison must of necessity 
be in accordance with the purpose or utility standard for 
the animal under observation. The viewpoint becomes of 
special significance at this time, as animals have component 
values which differ, depending on type, breed, or class con- 
formity. 

Balance of Points. — The balance of points involves deeper 
thought and greater responsibility than any other factor 
mentioned, as it is on the equated knowledge that a decision 
is reached. Individuals differ greatly in merits and faults, 
both as individual units and in the correlation of parts within 
the individual. If all animals differed precisely the same 
in their component parts, and if there was a fixed value to 
these parts for every purpose of animal formation and 
design, judging would be simple indeed. Because of the 
great variation in animal conformation, as related to the 
location of merits and faults in the individual structure, it 
becomes necessary to balance the points of form which are 
at variance. For example, it is easy to decide on the 
objectionable features of an open shoulder or a flat rib in a 
fat steer class. It is not so easy, however, to decide on. the 
relative merits and demerits of an animal with a low back, 



44 METHODS IN JUDGING AND SELECTION 

scantily covered with flesh, and one with a drooping rump, 
thin thighs, and high or open twist. This involves an 
accurate balance of points to determine the relative value 
of the animals concerned. It involves principles fixed 
entirely on utility requirements and the comparative value 
of correlated parts or units from which a conscientious, con- 
servative judge will not swerve. 

Decisions. — The decision is the logical result of the fore- 
going factors involved in rendering judgment. Decisions 
should be made promptly, yet with deliberation. A decision 
once made is charged against the animal knowledge which 
the judge possesses. Careless decisions not only reflect on 
the judge but often on the animals and their owner as well. 
It is a rare thing that a good judge changes a decision if he 
proceeds understanding^ concerning the standard by which 
the animals are being j udged . A misunderstanding of purpose 
or utility requirements could easily be responsible for a 
complete reversal of a decision. No other just cause could 
be advanced for a change of a decision. Keen discrimination 
and fixed principles are therefore important in analyzing, 
comparing, and balancing the points under observation, 
the sum total of which make an honest, accurate decision 
possible. 

Uniformity of Decisions. — Correct ideals are largely respon- 
sible for accurate and uniform decisions in the judging ring. 
Unless the student possesses a keen knowledge of animal 
form and has a clear vision in balancing the various points 
of the animals in a class, there is likely to be a serious lack 
of uniformity in the decisions made. Because of the prob- 
ability of such a condition, it is exceedingly important that 
the foundation principles for judging practice be correctly 
fixed in the mind. This involves, not only a knowledge of 
the exterior characteristics of the animal, but also of the 
vital machinery of digestion, circulation, nerve force, repro- 
duction, and development. The value of a strong head, a 
broad muzzle, and capacious chest development, and the 
relation of them to animal vigor, and a long period of use- 
fulness, must be fully understood. The value of nervous 
development, style, action, symmetry of form and handling 



POSITION OF ANIMALS 45 

quality, must be clearly fixed in the mind of the judge 
before he can proceed with a continuity of decisions which 
will stand the test of minute criticism. 

Fixed ideals of the various types, breeds, and classes of 
animals are the foundation for uniform and correct de- 
cisions. After a type is once established by the judge in a 
class it should be followed closely until the animals are all 
ranked according to their conformity to this type. It is 
only in exceptional cases that it becomes necessary to break 
type and in instances of this kind there must be some unusual 
reason for so doing. If there is a specific ideal or type of 
animal established at the head of a class, there will rarely 
be an occasion for following it with an animal of another 
distinct type. In judging animals it is universally recognized 
that there is a distinct type best suited for all specialized 
purposes. A distinct break in type would therefore be ad- 
verse to such a principle. In a class for breeding animals 
such a condition might arise through the presence of disease, 
or from lack of proper constitutional development or spe- 
cific breed attributes. An animal lacking in constitutional 
development or one in an incipient or advanced stage of an 
hereditary disease should not be given priority in a class 
of breeding animals. A clear understanding of the purpose 
for which an animal is bred, a distinct conception of the type 
adopted for the standard, and the reasons for discarding an 
animal which does not conform to the established type, are 
necessary for convincing, uniform, clear-cut decisions. 

Position of Animals. — In critically examining animals 
in a class or otherwise, it is advantageous to have them all 
headed in one direction in a uniform line on a level surface. 
They should be lined up on a smooth, even surface, for if 
placed otherwise the animals will usually assume an ill 
position, appear larger or smaller according to the view- 
point from which the examination is made, or such an 
unnatural position may accentuate merit or hide or cover 
defects. If the viewpoint is below the animals, they will 
appear larger, while if it is above they will appear smaller. 
It is very easy to deceive the eye in this respect. The animals 
should be placed level from the broadsides view. It is 



46 METHODS IN JUDGING AND SELECTION 

important to have the front feet on a level with the rear feet. 
If otherwise placed they will appear high or low at the withers, 
as the case may be. A position assumed to emphasize good 
qualities is permissible while one assumed to cover faults 
is deceit and, therefore, objectionable. There is always 
an opportunity to deceive the eye, and especially is this 
true with the beginner. Salesmen and showmen sometimes 
take advantage of these points to sell or exhibit an animal 
which otherwise might be an encumbrance on their hands 
or a loser in the show ring. Many other gross and minor 
practices are resorted to in showing animals. The fairness 
of such practices are, of necessity, questionable. 

System. — Decisions are reached most accurately and com- 
prehensively by using some definite method of procedure. 
This is important for the beginner, although the best 
judges use system. This may not be readily apparent to 
the observer, but if a close watch is kept on the movements 
of the judge it will be noticed that he usually has a definite 
order in which he surveys the animals in a class. Even the 
judge himself may not be aware that he uses system in his 
work. In such cases it is merely intuition which prompts 
and which thereby obtains the most accurate decisions in 
the briefest period of time. 

Point of Approach. — In examining a class of animals the 
student should proceed as quietly as possible, approaching 
the animal from the front, not only to avoid frightening a 
nervous animal, but because this is the logical viewpoint 
from which to start the examination. It also permits a 
student class to proceed with work in a regular manner 
without any unnecessary delay. This is very important, 
especially where a large class of animals is to be gone over. 
Regularity and promptness are not only important but 
necessary in live stock judging for accurately coordinated 
results. 

General Examination. — In judging live stock it is important 
that some regular method of procedure be employed to 
determine the merits of the individual or class. By so doing 
much greater headway can be made than by following a hap- 
hazard method of making the comparisons. If the animal 



GENERAL EXAMINATION 47 

is properly viewed the student or the prospective purchaser 
will not allow any important point to pass unnoticed on the 
first examination. This is very important in judging, as 
first impressions are always valuable. If a judge allows 
himself to get in the habit of returning the second or third 
time to reinforce his previous impressions, he is very likely 
to become biased or render faulty decisions. For this 
reason every part of the animal in view from any particular 
angle or position should come criticially under the eye of the 
judge. Much of the work can be done by taking certain 
standard points of view and make it a practice to get 
all the information desired from the first examination. If 
the class of animals is properly arranged for judging this 
can be done conveniently. It will save much annoyance 
to the judge, the animals, and the spectators. 

Front. — The first view of an animal should always be from 
the front, as many of the impressions gotten from this posi- 
tion will enable the judge to eliminate undesirable animals 
immediately. While this statement has qualifications, it is 
true in a large measure, and especially so with pure-bred 
stock where breed type enters largely into consideration. 
The head is an excellent index of what may be expected 
in the animal when viewed from the side or rear. Animals 
with strong breeding qualities as a general rule have very 
characteristic clear-cut features about the head. From 
the front view the shape and character of the head, neck, 
width and depth of chest, set of legs and feet, and the 
quality of all of these parts may be determined without 
actually handling the animal. While it may be difficult 
for the beginner to keep from handling, such a practice 
will ultimately lead to undesirable results. In making a 
critical study of the head, the length and width should be 
determined, especially between the eyes and across the 
forehead because of the special significance of a strong 
development in these parts. A broad head indicates intelli- 
gence and a mild or kindly disposition. This is especially so 
in the horse, because docility and intelligence are naturally 
looked for in such animals. However, it is no less important 
in cattle, swine or sheep, as a broad, clearly defined head 



48 METHODS IN JUDGING AND SELECTION 

is a universal indication of intelligence, docility, and thrift. 
The size of the eyes, their prominence, brightness and ex- 
pression should all be given due consideration as these 
characteristics should be prominently developed. 

Side. — Viewed from the side, every part accessible to 
the eye should be examined carefully. The general style 
and symmetry, length and depth of body, chest capacity, 
set of legs and any other special attribute of form or quality 
peculiar to the animal under consideration should be carefully 
fixed in the mind from this viewpoint. No factor which 
should be considered in the final balance of points should 
be omitted from the first examination. This is of unusual 
importance where the class of animals is large. 

Rear. — In viewing the animal from the rear the width, 
fulness, and depth of form should be examined carefully as 
well as the length, position, set, and shape of legs, especially in 
the horse. After this examination is completed the opposite 
side from the one first viewed should be gone over to detect 
anything unusual or faulty in the conformation which would 
give the animal an unsymmetrical appearance or depreciate 
its value in any way. This is of special importance in the 
horse, where a blemish or an unsoundness would be a serious 
detriment. 

Action. — Action is of primary importance in the horse, 
although in judging breeding animals of any description due 
consideration should be given to this point. Animals which 
have been pampered are often stilted in their action which is 
not in keeping with strong prepotent reproducing qualities. 
While it is desirable to have breeding animals showy in form 
by having a reasonable amount of finish, this should not be 
gained at the expense of depressed vigor or faulty action. 
In judging breeding animals of any description each animal 
in the class should be walked to determine any unusual 
condition or fault in form and action. What may apparently 
be an ideal animal in form at rest will be depreciated greatly 
in value because of faulty movement or action. A breeding 
animal should be useful for a period of years and a well- 
balanced condition in form, constitution and action is 
essential to this end. 



HANDLING ANIMALS 49 

Handling Animals. — The handling of animals is involved 
in determining conditions which cannot be readily perceived 
by the aid of the eye. In the several types of animals there 
are various parts which must be handled more or less carefully 
to determine the condition of the structural parts. 

Amount of Handling. — It is always preferable in judging a 
class of animals to handle them as little as possible. While 
it will be necessary for the beginner to occasionally reinforce 
his opinion obtained with the eye, it is preferable not to 
handle an animal any more than is absolutely necessary. 
It is very easy to get in the habit of allowing the hands to 
do that which should be determined by the eye. This not 
only involves risk but prolongs the examination and decision. 
The best judges of live stock, by constant practice, have 
developed the capacity of comprehending or determining 
what lies under the skin of the animals largely by the aid of 
the eye alone. While it is necessary for the best judges to 
use the hands at times, and especially where the decision is 
close, it is not good general practice. The beginner should 
always use precaution to see that he does not form the habit 
of relying on the hands, except in a case where a close 
decision justifies the practice. 

Determining Handling Quality. — Quality can often be 
determined or measured largely by the eye alone. It is 
permissible, however, to use the hands to a limited degree to 
determine the handling quality of the skin, its fineness, 
pliability, and elasticity. The condition of the hair and 
skin may be determined by the hands, although this is not 
always necessary. 

Mammary Development. — In judging dairy cattle the 
development of the mammary system is of special significance 
because of its direct relation to the value of these animals. 
The hands may be used to determine the pliability and 
elasticity of the skin on the udder, the length, size, and shape 
of the mammary veins, the number of branches, and the size 
of the mammary wells. Other than this the eye should be 
used to determine the relative merits of the mammary system. 

Determination of Unsoundness. — Unsoundness is of pri- 
mary importance in the horse. Any unsound condition 
4 



50 METHODS IN JUDGING AND SELECTION 

should be determined as far as practicable by the eye. 
Questionable cases should be determined by the use of the 
hands. Too much handling is not a good form, however, 
and should be avoided. 

Examination of Sheep. — In judging sheep a thorough 
examination by the use of the hands is necessary The 
practice is perfectly justifiable on the ground that the form 
of a sheep may not be in conformity with the outline of the 
wool covering. Sheep are trimmed to give beauty of form 
and to cover faults and defects. While the latter practice is 
natural, it is questionable whether it is justifiable. 

Any fault or defect in form can easily be determined by a 
rigid examination with the hands in all important parts 
considered in animal judging. The method of examination 
will be explained more fully in a subsequent discussion. 

Exterior Faults and Defects. — The three most common 
kinds of faults and defects are classified under the terms 
unsoundness, blemishes, and operations which are of impor- 
tance in judging as described below. 

Unsoundness. — Unsoundness is of particular importance 
in the horse. Because of the character of work for which 
the horse is used it is of special importance to have a sound 
and otherwise healthy animal. While this is important in 
judging any class of animals it is especially necessary in the 
horse when used for hard and persistent service. Cattle, 
hogs, and sheep intended for the block may have slightly 
imperfect structural forms and still be satisfactory meat 
producers. If they were to be retained for a period of 
years, like the breeding animal, the pleasure or work horse, 
it would be very important to have them free from any 
hereditary or predisposed unsoundness. Of all the animals 
named, however, the horse is of special interest, as severe 
driving or work often develops troubles which might not 
occur if they were not subjected to actual road or field work, 
something which other farm animals are not required to do. 
On the streets of the large cities horses are much shorter 
lived from an active utility standpoint, because their con- 
stant contact with the hard pavements usually aggravates an 
unsoundness or develops any predisposed trouble. Many of 



EXTERIOR FAULTS AND DEFECTS 51 

these horses, if kept on the farm, might never develop 
unsoundness. City-used horses may be rejuvenated by a 
rest and the less exacting service in the field or on the 
farm. 

Blemishes. — A perfect specimen of a horse should not only 
conform in his lines to the standard of perfection, as outlined 
for the type or breed, but there should be absolute freedom 
from blemishes and unsoundness. While an animal may be 
a perfect breeder or worker, although blemishes occur, such 
marks are unsightly and decrease the market value. An 
unsoundness, on the other hand, may not only seriously 
interfere with the usefulness of the animal but in many 
cases such troubles are transmitted. A predisposition to 
such diseases as bone spavin, side bones, ring bones, or curbs, 
often causes serious trouble. A blemish will neither be trans- 
mitted nor will it often interfere with the usefulness of the 
animal, unless it occurs in a serious form on some part of 
the leg or foot. When it so interferes with usefulness it 
becomes an unsoundness. Wire cuts, bruises, scars from 
cuts or abrasions constitute a few of the marks which are 
termed blemishes. Any scar or mark which is acquired 
through accident may properly be termed a blemish, while 
an unsoundness is acquired through transmission or a pre- 
disposition to the trouble because of faulty conformation, 
or from a severe accident, or unusual strain. Some of the 
more common and serious kinds of unsoundness will be 
described in the chapters on horses and mules. 

Operations. — -Operations on animals for improving show 
condition have been practised with considerable regularity 
and at times with much success, as far as the immediate 
results were concerned in the show ring. From the stand- 
point of the individual as a utility animal or as a breeder, 
such practices are not justified. Show ring judging from 
this standpoint has not been all that it should be. While 
the individuals may be otherwise meritorious, if there is 
any indication of an operation having been performed, 
such animals should be discriminated against severely. If 
an animal cannot appear in the ring in a natural condition 
it is not justifiable to allow such animals to win over those 



52 METHODS IN JUDGING AND SELECTION 

which are normally constituted, although less perfect than 
those made so by superficial alterations. 

There are several very satisfactory operations which may 
be performed without marring the appearance of the animal 
or without causing abrasions of any kind. These conditions 
should be carefully observed in examining an animal. 
Usually close examination will reveal any alteration of 
structure from an operation. It is highly important, there- 
fore, that the student become familiar with the natural 
structural form and condition of the animal in order that 
he may determine any unusual alteration of the nature 
suggested. 

One of the most common operations is that known as 
"bishoping" the teeth to make an animal appear younger 
than otherwise. This consists in burning artificial cups in the 
teeth which normally develop and disappear in the animal 
between the ages of five and eleven years. This condition 
is often used to advantage to make an old animal appear 
young and thus sell more profitably. Another operation, 
quite often performed, is that of injecting air beneath the 
skin to make the animal appear full and plump. This may 
be done to fill out the hollows above the eyes which appear 
with old age. It may also be used to improve the condition 
of a once "sweenied" shoulder or atrophied muscles in other 
parts. Nerving or nerve cutting is also practised to prevent 
lameness. 

Functional Points in Judging and Selection. — In judging 
animals in the show ring the exterior points of merit are 
largely the sole basis on which decisions are made. However, 
in the actual selection of some animals, especially horses, 
there are certain points which are vitally important in 
estimating future usefulness. Selection, as specifically differ- 
entiated from animal judging, brings into use certain pre- 
liminary qualifications for detection. Real selection, for 
the purpose of learning all of the good and bad points, 
has underlying determinations which must necessarily be 
determined outside of the class room or judging ring. While 
attention should be given to these factors in other animals 
they are not equally important. 



FUNCTIONAL POINTS IN JUDGING AND SELECTION 53 

Horses. — The judging and selection of the horse differs 
fundamentally from other animals because of the relation 
of its disposition, temperament, soundness, and action to 
its value in the breeding or commercial world. A horse 
must possess all these additional attributes to make it 
most acceptable and serviceable. 

Unlike most other farm animals the principal value of the 
horse lies in the amount and quality of work which can be 
performed. This of necessity requires strict observance to 
the special attributes named. The horse should therefore 
be examined in and out of the stable. While customary 
student or show ring judging will not permit this additional 
examination, it is important that it be accomplished when 
conditions warrant. 

An examination of the horse in the stall will reveal many 
of the vices which mar and prevent a ready sale of an other- 
wise valuable and well-formed animal. The most common 
vices detected in the stall are cribbing, weaving, wind sucking 
and halter pulling, all of which lower the value of an animal 
materially. Unsound feet or legs may also be frequently 
detected by the position in which the animal stands. When 
the weight is thrown on one leg or foot, either in the fore- 
quarters or hindquarters, there is indication of lameness or un- 
soundness. Weak or imperfect eyes may also be determined 
by the size, shape, and condition which they assume when the 
animal is brought from a dark stable into the outside light. 

After the test of the eyes is completed it is of vital im- 
portance to examine the condition of the wind carefully. 
Unsound wind is detected by hitching the animal to a vehicle 
and giving severe exercise. Any questionable unsoundness 
of wind from collar or harness adjustment should be decided 
by having the harness readjusted or by exercising the ani- 
mal vigorously under the saddle. After stopping the animal 
suddenly, the judge should advance quickly to the nostrils 
and note the character of the breathing. If it is character- 
ized by a wheezing sound the probable trouble is either 
roaring or whistling. When the breathing is irregular or 
spasmodic the animal is likely affected with the heaves. 
In the latter case, the air is apparently partly expelled 



54 METHODS IN JUDGING AND SELECTION 

from the lungs, respiration stops for a short period when the 
breathing or expulsion of the air is continued. Heavey 
horses are characterized by irregular depressions of the 
flanks, these movements being coordinated with the stoppage 
and expulsion of the air from the lungs. 

Other Animals. — In other animals than the horse con- 
tagious, infectious, and hereditary diseases are the most 
likely troubles or imperfections which cannot always be 
determined in the show ring. For example, tuberculosis and 
contagious abortion in cattle, cholera in hogs, and parasitic 
diseases in sheep are the most common, and the ones usually 
the most important to detect. Unsoundness, as applied 
to the horse, is not an important determination in cattle, 
swine, and sheep. Their individuality, outside of precautions 
against disease, can be determined very accurately from the 
exterior characteristics. Breeding animals may be considered 
as the exception. 

In the actual selection of a male or female for breeding, 
they should be tested if feasible to do so. This is especially 
important in selecting high-priced breeding stock. However, 
it may not always be economy or good policy to test young 
animals. In fact, a large percentage of both males and 
females are sold at an age when testing would be impossible. 
Average or moderate-priced animals are seldom tested for 
breeding qualities. The comparative financial risk is not 
sufficient to warrant such a method of selection. Older and 
more valuable animals are worthy of greater consideration. 
Sires should be tested with females which have proved their 
merit in the breeding herd. Likewise, females should be 
tested with sires which have proved their efficiency. Any 
special merits or faults are thus readily detected. The 
animal used for breeding to the untried individual should 
always be a tried and proved breeding animal. Otherwise 
the test is of no value. 

Promptness, Accuracy, and Thoroughness. — The student 
should proceed with the examination of the animal as rapidly 
as possible. However, it is necessary to take sufficient time 
to judge the various parts accurately. If this is not accom- 
plished in the beginning it usually leads to hazy, uncertain 



ARRIVING AT DECISIONS 55 

conclusions. The first decision, if carefully reached or 
decided upon, is usually the most accurate, granting that 
the student has proceeded in his examination with a determin- 
ation to locate the various points of merit accurately and 
place the class accordingly. If an animal is viewed hurriedly 
and no definite impression is made of the basic merits or 
faults possessed it will usually cause misjudgment. It 
will save time and usually induce greater accuracy to survey 
carefully both major and minor merits and faults during the 
first examination. 

Arriving at Decisions. — Decisions are based on ideals and 
reached in the following manner: 

Basis of Judgment. — Live stock judging implies the passing 
of judgment on a class of animals from some specific view- 
point. The establishment of distinct types, breeds and 
market classes is fundamental in fixing the viewpoint from 
which the student or show ring judge may work. Modern 
live stock judging implies a fixation of type from the standard 
of which the awards in a class must be made. It is very 
important that before judging begins a standard of com- 
parison or purpose be established upon which the decisions 
may be based. A class of mares, for example, may be judged 
either as purely draft animals, as breeders, or a combination 
of the two. Unless the standard is understood in the be- 
ginning there is likely to be a great variation in the awards 
owing to the difference in the standards selected. Two 
mares judged strictly as draft animals might be reversed 
when judged from the breeding standpoint. It is this 
basis of judgment which must be kept constantly in mind to 
avoid erroneous decisions. In judging any class of animals, 
the basis or standard of comparison should first be clearly 
fixed in the mind, and then each animal should be placed 
according to the degree of conformity to this basis or stand- 
ard. This rule is fundamental in all live stock judging. 

Culling Inferior Animals. — If the class which is being 
judged contains a large number of animals it is usually good 
practice to go through the entire number and eliminate those 
which have no chance of winning a place. By so doing, it 
will avoid any burden to the mind or eye which the viewing 



56 METHODS IN JUDGING AND SELECTION 

of a large number of animals might cause. After elimi- 
nating all of the inferior specimens, the selected class should 
then be examined carefully and the remaining number placed 
according to individual merit. It is not good practice to 
cull the class to the exact number which it is desired to 
place. This is especially true if there are no outstanding 
winners. If the animals are of about the same merit when 
the points are balanced it will be advantageous to retain 
several surplus animals in the short leet from which the 
winners are to be selected. This will avoid any likelihood 
of eliminating a possible winner from the selected class. 

Draft or Short Leet. — The term draft or short leet is the 
term applied to the animals retained in a class to be placed 
according to their comparative merit. If the class is small 
in number it is not necessary to eliminate the inferior animals 
or resort to the short leet, as the eye can readily determine 
those which are entitled to win. At some of the larger 
shows, where several animals are brought into the ring, it 
is necessary to use the eliminating process. In a small 
class it is neither necessary nor advisable, unless for some 
unusual reason. 



CHAPTER V. 

FACTORS AND PRINCIPLES APPLICABLE TO 

THE JUDGING AND SELECTION OF 

LIVE STOCK. 

INDIVIDUAL MERIT. 

In judging the various types, breeds, and classes of animals, 
there are certain fundamentals which are directly related 
to their form and functioning capacity. These points are all 
of primary importance and may be accurately measured when 
compared with the proper standard significant of the breed, 
type, or class in question. 

Utility. — A proper definition of the term utility is funda- 
mental for accurately judging all classes of live stock. 
Insufficient evidence of utility or conformity to a standard 
is largely responsible for eliminating individuals from a 
placing. Animals are not always eliminated from the 
judging ring because of absolute inferiority, but rather 
because of improper adaptation to the standard with which 
they are to be compared. Before making a decision on a 
class of individuals, one should become thoroughly acquainted 
with the purpose for which the animals are being judged. 
Unless such information is first obtained gross errors may 
occur in the decisions. 

There are instances where the most inferior animal in a 
class might be placed at the head because of its closer con- 
formity to the type taken for the standard. A fat steer 
in a feeder class might be an outstanding winner, barring 
purpose or utility. It may readily be supposed that such a 
steer would be popularly classed as deserving of first merit, 
yet utility or conformity to purpose must be taken into con- 
sideration. If such a class is being placed from the stand- 
point of feed-lot adaptation then the thinner and less attrac- 

(57) 



58. JUDGING AND SELECTION OF LIVE STOCK 

tive type of animal would rightfully be the winner, other 
conditions being equal. In other instances the round, 
sleek-bodied colt might be popularly classed as the most 
deserving animal, yet from the standpoint of future develop- 
ment and final value, the animal with the larger bone, more 
angular and growthy form should be selected. 

Numerous other examples could be cited where the most 
inferior animal, barring adaptation to purpose, might be 
placed first in a class. A definite knowledge of utility, 
however, is the foundation and keynote of successful live 
stock judging. A class of animals should never be given 
a rating before information pertaining to their usage is 
obtained. One class might be placed in a certain order and 
later in a reverse order by changing the viewpoint for 
making the decision. The student should be watchful in 
placing classes of stock, as utility or usefulness is the real 
foundation on which decisions are made. 

General Appearance. — Ordinarily there are certain dis- 
tinctive characters possessed by an animal which distin- 
guishes it from all others. The first impression obtained 
of an animal implies general appearance, signifying the size, 
shape or form, weight, color, peculiar markings, symmetry 
and general demeanor, all being of special significance in 
approaching or establishing the degree of conformity to 
the standard implied or written. The factors pertaining to 
general appearance should be determined at a distance and 
not at a close angle, as such a position would likely obscure 
symmetry or peculiarities in the animal under observation. 
General impressions should always be obtained at a distance 
sufficient to bring the real utility value in the proper sphere 
of form and development. Other more detailed studies 
may be made at close range which will enable the observer 
to obtain a clear-cut picture of the value of an animal in 
actual service. This involves a determination of the value 
of several fundamental factors significant of the various 
types, breeds, and classes of animals, as discussed in the fol- 
lowing. 

Form. — The form of most domestic animals, especially 
meat-producing or block animals conforms closely to a 



INDIVIDUAL MERIT 59 

parallelogram. The principal exceptions are the dairy 
breeds of cattle, the Thoroughbred {running) horse, the bacon 
hog, the Merino breeds of sheep, and one or two other 
breeds not of special importance. This type has been 
developed because of the value accruing through the increased 
amount of edible products in animals of such conformation. 
The form of practically all English and Scotch breeds of 
live stock is parallelogramic, barring a few important excep- 
tions. From a knowledge of these facts, students in judging 
can very often determine in a general way the points upon 
which stress should be placed. 

In judging live stock, if a proper analysis is made of the 
various types of domestic animals, it will not be extremely 
difficult to decide on the general merits of any class of 
individuals. While this knowledge cannot be used in making 
keen discriminations between individuals, it can be used very 
successfully in establishing a foundation for the beginner. 
If the particular points qualifying the specific type of an 
animal are conjoined with the general type upon which the 
animal is developed, it will be especially helpful in deter- 
mining the rating of a class. For example, in a class of pure- 
bred animals, if the points indicating breed character have 
been mastered and they are properly correlated with the 
general form of the animal, the rating of the animals in the 
class can be practically determined. 

One of the next important types of live stock with which 
the student has to deal is the angular, wedge-shaped form 
of the dairy cow. If the type of the dairy animal is once 
well fixed in the mind and the points of utility clearly 
defined and distinguished, it will furnish an excellent founda- 
tion on which to build a knowledge of the important differ- 
ences in the various dairy breeds. 

The bacon hog is different from the fat type of hog, 
especially in the width of the animal, which is comparatively 
narrow considering its length and depth. It is necessary 
to have a long, smooth, deep and lean side in the bacon hog, 
as it is not possible to obtain bacon characteristics in the 
square, compact form of the fat hog which conforms to the 
general type first described. This is one of the exceptions 



60 JUDGING AND SELECTION OF LIVE STOCK 

in the English type of stock which is very largely bred on 
the low, square, compact order. From the breed standpoint 
the two prominent exceptions are the Tamworth and York- 
shire breeds of swine. The American type of hog is more 
nearly like the English type of beef and dual purpose cattle 
and sheep, i. e., parallelogramic. 

The Merino breeds of sheep, developed for wool primarily, 
have an unusual conformation due to the wrinkled, uneven 
condition of the skin and fleece. While the type of these 
animals is generally that of a parallelogram, their unusually 
wrinkled condition gives them an odd, ungainly appear- 
ance. This formation of the skin and fleece has added 
greatly to their value, however, because of the increase in 
the surface on which wool may be grown. The Thorough- 
bred (running) horse, which is bred for speed at the run exclu- 
sively, has developed into a long, angular, and racy type of 
animal. Likewise, the race-horse type of the Standardbred 
trotter and pacer has in many instances developed into a 
light, lithe type not characteristic of the road-horse type of 
this breed. With these exceptions noted, all of the important 
breeds of horses, cattle, sheep and swine should have a 
broad, deep, long, and compact or close knit and symmetrical 
form. This is essential in any breed of animals developed 
for work or for the production of edible products such as 
beef, pork, or mutton. 

Height. — Height is of special significance in the horse. 
It is determined by measuring from the highest point of 
the withers to the ground. In other animals the height is a 
matter of symmetry in the correlation of other parts rather 
than an absolute determination to a fixed standard, as in 
horses. 1 

Weight. — The weight of an animal varies according to the 
breed, type, class, individual, age, and condition. In most 

1 In measuring height the horse should stand on a level surface and the 
measure made to the highest point of the withers. The legs should be per- 
pendicular to the floor and parallel with each other. The measuring 
apparatus should also be held perpendicular to the floor and the cross bar 
should be level. The shoes should be taken into consideration. The actual 
height can be determined only by measuring the horse without shoes or 
by deducting the height of the shoes. 



INDIVIDUAL MERIT 



61 



classes of stock weight is of primary consideration. This is 
especially true in draft horses, beef cattle, swine, and sheep. 
Abnormal weight above the required standard is a dis- 
criminative quality. In judging, the weight should be 
estimated or its value fixed according to the factors mentioned 
above. One of the principal examples of a breed where 
height and weight do not qualify the animal for service is 
in the Shetland pony. The height to which this breed 









**& 












. 


th 






^B - lw"' * '* ' 




•^ 




Sir- 


mm .;- 


9 



Fig. 5. — Method of measuring height of horse. (Courtesy of Prof. C. S. 
Plumb, Columbus, Ohio.) 



attains is limited to forty-six inches in animals which qualify 
for registry in the recognized record book. Other similar 
cases might be cited, but it is not considered necessary to 
give them special consideration. 

Scale. — The scale of an animal is fixed by the height and 
weight attained. The term is synonymous with size but is 
often used in designating the combined quality of height 
and weight. 



62 JUDGING AND SELECTION OF LIVE STOCK 

Substance. — The term substance refers to structure. Gay 
defines it as being manifested by the scale of the animal in 
general and the amount of any one particular tissue such as 
bone. Quality and substance are not correlated but more 
or less of each is essential, depending upon the type of the 
animal. 

Quality. — Quality in an animal is not a material attribute. 
The best method to use in impressing the significance of 
quality upon the mind is to study two animals carefully 
which have diverging qualifications in this respect. Where 
quality is clearty evident it is not only an indication of what 
will be found on minute examination of the exterior, but 
it represents also the character of the bone, tissue and flesh, 
for example, of meat-producing animals. From the breeder's 
standpoint evidences of quality are seen in a fine, clean, 
mellow skin which is pliable and elastic to the touch. Animals 
possessing quality usually have a fine clean bone, a fine- 
textured flesh, and a minimum of waste on the block if 
produced for this purpose. In other than meat- and wool- 
producing animals quality is manifested in the clean-cut, 
smooth, firm conformation. Evidence of the blood circula- 
tion is also usually clearly apparent in such animals. 

In judging quality the mistake should not be made of 
placing an undue value on a thin, papery skin, as such a 
condition does not represent quality. A thick, harsh, 
inelastic skin is likewise undersirable because it is usually 
accompanied with large, coarse bones, rough, prominent 
joints, and coarse-textured flesh. A further characterization 
of quality is indicated in the head, shoulders, and tail setting. 
The head should be clear in outline, clean and free from any 
abnormal condition such as roughness, coarse hair, undefined 
features or facial outlines. The muzzle should be large yet 
indicative of quality. The shoulders should be compact, 
smooth and evenly covered, except in the dairy breeds, which 
should have light shoulders and sharp withers. In cattle, 
swine, and sheep inferior quality is also indicated by a rough, 
open condition over the top of the shoulders. In the horse 
it is manifested by a coarse, unsymmetrical blending of the 
neck, shoulders, and withers. Taken as a whole, the animal 



INDIVIDUAL MERIT 63 

possessing quality shows extreme individuality, clear-cut 
outlines, fine-textured skin, hair and bone, and a general 
harmonious blending and symmetry of all parts. 

Individuality. — Individuality is a quality or state peculiar or 
distinctive to an individual. In live stock judging it is used 
in a narrower sense than character, which is a supreme breed 
mark in the best pure-bred animals. Character is thus 
used in signifying the degree of conformity to the breed 
which it represents. Individuality conveys the idea of clear- 
cut contour which distinguishes an animal, not only from 
other types but from other animals of the same general type. 
The critical live stock judge will quickly select the animal 
in a class possessing the greatest individuality because of its 
distinctive or clear-cut lines. This may be done regardless 
of whether an animal represents any particular breed. 

A clear understanding of individuality in its minutest 
sense is really the basis of accurate live stock judging. 
A student who can master and balance the characteristic 
differences among individuals promptly will usually make a 
successful live stock critic. It is these minor variations in 
detecting individuality which bring out the contrast between 
the average and the keen judge who never allows a single 
point in an animal to pass unnoticed. The most successful 
judges are those who have made such a study of animal 
form that they can determine the gross form and its value 
by merely observing a single part, such as the head or any 
other region of the body. It is individuality or distinc- 
tiveness in outline and features which enables them to 
do so. 

Constitution. — The term constitution is significant of 
ruggedness, vitality or robustness of form, duration or 
persistency in performance, and longevity. In breeding 
animals constitution ranks as an especially important 
attribute, as the use of strong, vigorous animals is necessary 
to fix this and other desirable characteristics in the offspring. 
If the constitution of the breeding animal is weak the same 
condition will likely be transmitted to future generations. 
It is not so important to emphasize this point in market 
animals because of their shorter period of usefulness. It 



64 JUDGING AND SELECTION OF LIVE STOCK 

should be given consideration only to the extent which it is 
indicative of immediate health and vigor. 

A capable judge will recognize the characteristics indicating 
constitution even without making a special examination of 
the animal. A full, broad head, a large muzzle and open 
nostrils, a full, deep chest and barrel which indicate capacity, 
aptly characterize an animal with strong constitutional 
development. The reverse characteristics, such as a long, 
narrow head, a pointed muzzle and small nostrils, a narrow, 
shallow chest, and a long, loosely coupled body indicate a 
decided weakness. Such animals should never be used in a 
breeding herd as they will neither breed nor develop into 
satisfactory breeding or market individuals. Animals of 
this type are usually the result of indiscriminate breeding, 
although occasionally they appear in well-bred herds. 
This may be the result of faulty management in early life. 
However, it is more often the result of some constitutional 
fault or defect in the ancestral animals. The best results 
can never be obtained from a breeding or market animal 
which is lacking in the factors which help to maintain 
the vital functions. Many animals, however, are so main- 
tained and bred, generation after generation, only to add to 
the number of weak, impotent individuals. 

Constitution in the breeding animal is analogous to 
endurance in the speed animal. Without it neither can 
perform their functions satisfactorily. While it is an attri- 
bute of importance in block animals, it is of unusual 
importance in breeding, work, or speed animals. It does 
not matter to what extent an animal is endowed with other 
special functions, unless it has the constitution to balance 
the other necessary attributes of milk, beef or speed, there 
cannot be a maximum amount of energy developed or work 
performed. Constitution is of first and last importance in 
a breeding animal, not only to perfect maturity of its own 
body but that of the growing fetus and those of future 
development. A dairy cow may possess a maximum amount 
of quality, the highest developed nervous temperament, but 
unless she is endowed with the vitality to continue the milk- 
producing function, such an animal is extremely faulty, both 



INDIVIDUAL MERIT 05 

as a milk-producer and a reproducer of her own inherited 
attainments. The animal of low vitality or, as otherwise 
expressed, weak constitution, usually shows evidence of the 
condition in the eyes, the development of the chest, the 
size of the muzzle and nostrils, and other indications of 
general capacity. When strongly endowed with constitutional 
characteristics it bespeaks persistency of performance and 
continuity of strongly inherited offspring. 

Capacity. — Capacity is bred and developed in an animal 
the same as any other quality or characteristic. Naturally, 
animals should be selected which have an inherent ten- 
dency toward such development. Animals which have 
small capacity are usually the result of using inferior breed- 
ing stock, although they may occasionally be the offspring 
of exceptionally strong and vigorous breeding animals. 
Capacity is indicative either of breeding or feeding quali- 
ties. Like constitution, this factor is of greater importance 
in the breeding animal because of the influence which it 
exerts throughout the entire period of usefulness and on 
future generations. A short, shallow-bodied animal makes 
an inferior breeder because of its inability to properly 
nourish and develop a strong, vigorous fetus. The cramped 
condition of the animal is not only indicative of improper 
self-maintenance, but it naturally checks the development 
which the reproductive system should convey to the unborn 
animal. 

In a measure, capacity may be either natural or acquired ; 
for example, it can be developed by liberal feeding or retarded 
by witholding proper maintenance rations. The young 
animal may be grown into a shallow-bodied, flat-ribbed 
individual by witholding the roughage part of the ration, 
either wholly or in part, or capacity may be materially in- 
creased or developed by feeding liberally on rich, nutritious 
feeds. A clear line of demarcation should be drawn between 
the breeding animal and the one intended for feeding pur- 
poses in estimating the necessity of capacity requirements. 
In either case it is important, yet on the whole the animal 
which has a long period of usefulness should have capacity 
unusually marked in its development. 
5 



66 



JUDGING AND SELECTION OF LIVE STOCK 



Symmetry. — The symmetry of an animal is dependent on 
the blending of the individual parts, such as the head, neck, 
shoulders, body, and quarters. In an unsymmetrical animal 
each of the parts above named and the minor structural 
details stand out independent of each other. The head, 
for example, may be large and coarse at the junction with 
the neck. The shoulders may be abrupt instead of blending 




Fig. 6. — French Coach stallion, showing symmetry of form. 

smoothly into the body proper. The coupling may be long 
and, therefore, make the animal appear long and out of 
proportion with the other parts. The coupling should not 
only be short to give strength but to add style, beauty, and 
symmetry of form. Symmetry involves a construction indi- 
cating that the parts are made one for the other, instead of 
having an independent formation. Symmetry of the whole 
involves a complete harmonious blending of all the parts, 
thus indicating a unified structure. 



INDIVIDUAL MERIT 



67 



Temperament. — Temperament signifies the degree and 
character of development of the nervous system. It is 
especially significant in judging certain types, such as the 
horse, beef, and dairy animal. Each type of live stock has 
peculiar temperamental characteristics significant of their 
adaptability to various specialized purposes. The value of 
the horse for pleasure or work is measured in a large degree 
by the temperament possessed. Draft animals are character- 
ized by lymphatic temperament or nerve force, while speed 




Fig. 7. — Jersey bull, showing nervous temperament. 

horses are characterized in an extreme manner in the highly 
developed nervous temperament possessed. 

The temperament of the dairy cow is likewise of a nervous 
character. Heavy milk production is largely dependent on 
the lean, spare framework indicative of a highly developed 
nervous system. The degree of perfection reached in dairy 
breeds is closely associated with the degree of development 
of the nervous organization. Such a condition indicates 
that the animal is turning all of the food materials, over and 
above maintenance, into milk production. The beef animal, 
having a close, compact, smooth form is characterized by 



68 JUDGING AND SELECTION OF LIVE STOCK 

a lymphatic temperament which is just the reverse of that 
possessed by dairy breeds and certain types and breeds of 
light horses. 

Temperament is controlled largely by the development 
of the nervous system. The breeding of the animal enters 
into consideration in analyzing this characteristic. A 
running horse, for example, with a lymphatic temperament 
would be practically useless on the track and, likewise, one 
with a highly developed nervous organization would be of 
little value as a pleasure animal. Generally speaking, the 
animal which accumulates the energy from the food material 
on its own body has a comparatively low state of nerve force 
or development, while one which eliminates the products of 
energy through milk or high-speed development is char- 
acterized by a highly developed nervous organization. 

Condition. — Condition is a broad term which is used to 
designate the amount of fat which an animal carries at any 
particular stage in life. While fat accumulation is not 
necessarily a requisite of breeding animals, the acquisition 
of fat is often employed to bring out the ultimate or final 
effect in an animal. In discussing condition, the two terms, 
natural flesh and fat, should be clearly differentiated. Natural 
flesh, to a specified degree, is a requisite of all animals, speak- 
ing from a broad viewpoint. The term is more particularly 
used in discussing the flesh merits of cattle. However, it 
may be very properly applied in a broad way to all animals. 
Natural flesh or muscle is acquired during the growing stage. 
Fat may be acquired to a limited extent during the same 
period. However, it is a natural phenomenon of the matured 
animal. The two terms, fat and flesh, are often used inter- 
changeably. However, a clear line of demarcation should 
be drawn. 

Market Condition. — Market condition is significant of the 
accumulation of fat in placing market or show animals in 
the best possible condition to sell or show advantageously. 
While such animals are often fattened to an extreme degree, 
this is not necessarily significant of overfattening or pam- 
pered condition. Market animals are put in high condition 
to improve the quality of the finished product. Show animals 



INDIVIDUAL MERIT 09 

are so handled, not because of added value for breeding 
purposes, but rather to show what the ultimate result would 
be in the offspring from such animals if finished for the 
block. 

Breeding Condition. — Breeding animals should be main- 
tained in medium condition for obtaining the best results. 
This is especially true if such animals are to be handled by 
amateur feeders. The experienced feeder can take an' 
animal which has been placed in high condition and remove 
the excess fat in such a way that the animal may not be 




Fig. 8. — Shorthorn cow, showing high or pampered condition and lymphatic 
temperament. 

materially injured. While there is a sentiment against 
placing breeding animals in high condition for show purposes, 
it is not possible to bring out the ultimate results which 
may be obtained unless breeders use this method of prepa- 
ration. There is merit in such a practice if not overdone. 

Pampered Condition. — The average breeder should not 
undertake to breed from animals which have been highly or 
excessively fitted for market or show purposes. Such a 
pampered condition is, without doubt, detrimental to the 
breeding capacity of any individual. The period of usefulness 



70 JUDGING AND SELECTION OF LIVE STOCK 

is usually not only shortened but in many instances the 
quality of the offspring is not what it would be under 
ordinary conditions. The varied experience of the construc- 
tive breeder in watching the process of development and 
fattening enables him to determine the probable underlying 
structure with considerable accuracy. A breeder who 
possesses this experience can often select a highly fitted 
animal with profit because he recognizes value which the 
average person would fail to detect. While this plan of 
selection may be followed by breeders of this stamp, it is 
not generally recommended for the average stockman. 

QUALIFICATIONS OF BREEDING ANIMALS. 

There are certain distinctive qualifications required of 
breeding animals which render them most useful from the 
viewpoint of the breeder and the showman. 

Breed Character. — Breeding animals, strictly speaking, 
are those of pure lineage with the blood lines sufficiently 
concentrated so that certain distinctive breed features are 
reproduced in every detail. Pure-bred animals are char- 
acterized by certain features or breed markings which 
typify or distinguish them from all other breeds and which 
are under the proper conditions uniformily transmitted to 
the offspring. As these breed features or markings should 
represent utility qualifications, breed type becomes an 
important factor in judging pure-bred animals. The term, 
breed character, should be taken to signify the characters or 
features which typify standard representatives of the breed. 
From an economic standpoint those breed characters or 
features which qualify from the practical standpoint are 
the ones which should be instrumental in defining the 
purpose of a breed. Unfortunately, such a condition has 
not always existed, and because of this some breeds qualify 
in a measure because of those characteristics or markings 
which are not essentially of value. 

Breed character is a supreme mark which dominates 
all animals deserving of the highest rank among breeders. 
While breed character is of vital importance in judging 



QUALIFICATIONS OF BREEDING ANIMALS 



71 



pure-bred breeding classes, other characteristics or condi- 
tions of significance should not be disregarded. Judgment 
in breeding classes is passed relative to the conformity of 
animals to certain arbitrary standards which have been fixed. 
There should be a clear-cut conformity to these breed char- 
acteristics, otherwise a break in type may become necessary. 
Breed character bespeaks a lineage of carefully bred animals 
which a prospective purchaser cannot conscientiously disre-? 
gard in selecting breeding stock. There is a special signifi- 
cance in animals of high-bred character which it is necessary 




Fig. 9. — Breed character in an Aberdeen-Angus cow. 



to recognize in the breeding herd and in the show ring. 
Every breeding animal should portray vividly, even to the 
finest points of discrimination, the features which charac- 
terize or typify each animal within the breed and each breed 
among breeds. 

Herd Uniformity. — There is no problem more difficult to 
solve or direct than that of breeding a herd of live stock 
of uniform type and quality. While the eliminating process 
can be used to good advantage in discarding the inferior 
specimens from the herd, there still remains the important 



72 JUDGING AND SELECTION OF LIVE STOCK 

problem of unifying the various breed characteristics of the 
animals retained. Variation is the real source of breed im- 
provement, yet variations occur, not only for good qualities, 
but for undesirable ones as well. This makes the establish- 
ment of uniform characteristics doubly difficult. If breeders 
practice culling their herds closely, the inferior qualities 
may thus be largely removed and along with them the 
characteristics which tend to make the herd variable in 
transmission. There will always remain, however, a certain 
natural variation even among the better developed specimens 
in the herd. 

The original practice of breeding and maintaining several 
distinct types of animals in a herd kept it in an admixed 
condition. Fortunately, however, this practice is being 
rapidly replaced by more favorable conditions. The practice 
of maintaining an animal because of its excellence, disregard- 
ing its conformity to a definite type, is rapidly giving way, 
by the better class of breeders, to a system which will allow 
greater uniformity. The best herds have all been built up 
by this one-type method of improvement and it is merely 
a question of practising it rigidly for breeders to reach 
ultimate success in breed or herd uniformity. These con- 
ditions should all be noted in a herd from which a purchaser 
anticipates selecting animals for a foundation. 

Adaptation. — Breeds of live stock should be selected with 
special reference to their adaptation to the section in which 
the herd is to be established. In most of the standard breeds 
of live stock there is quite a wide latitude of adaptation, 
yet there are specialized conditions under which unusual 
results may be obtained. The Jersey breed of cattle is well 
adapted to close pasture confinement, having been reared 
under such conditions in their native home. The Holstein- 
Friesian breed, which is considerably larger than the Jersey, 
thrives best where it has access to good pasture lands. In 
Holland where this breed originated the farms are level, and 
it is on such land that this breed reaches its highest state 
of development, although like the Jersey, the breed will 
thrive under varying conditions. The Ayrshire breed origi- 
nated in northwestern Scotland where the land is rough, 



QUALIFICATIONS OF BREEDING ANIMALS 73 

hilly, and the pastures are scant and not of the best quality. 
Because of these rather unfavorable conditions the Ayrshire 
has developed into a breed which is especially noted for 
its adaptation to rough, sparse pasturage conditions. In 
selecting a breed of dairy cattle for a rough, hilly country 
where pasture lands are not of the best quality, the Ayrshire 
is credited as being an excellent breed to suit these conditions. 

The Hereford has developed into an excellent breed for 
western range conditions, largely because of its adaptability 
to range country conditions. The Shorthorn, although an 
excellent breed, is more favorably adapted to sections where 
pasture lands are naturally abundant. Usually this breed 
has found its home under these conditions notably in Ken- 
tucky, Virginia, Ohio, Illinois, Iowa, and Indiana. Although 
rightly considered the cosmopolitan breed of beef cattle, be- 
cause of their wide distribution, it is better naturally adapted 
to conditions like those mentioned. 

Confining the discussion to certain types of animals, it is 
a fixed principle that small breeds of animals, for example, 
are more thrifty under sparse or average pasturage conditions 
than otherwise. The large breeds of sheep may be main- 
tained under rather artificial conditions and attain a certain 
degree of success. However, they are very much better 
adapted to sections where they have access to rich, natural 
pasture lands. The same principle may be applied to all 
breeds of live stock, and in so doing it will be found upon 
close study and observation that these breeds have become 
disseminated largely according to this principle. 

Breeding Test. — If circumstances will permit, it is prefer- 
able to select breeding animals which have been rigidly 
tried out in the herd. This is impossible, however, with 
young stock which has not reached breeding age. The only 
guarantee of breeding qualities which the purchaser usually 
gets with an individual is the fact that the ancestors were 
successful breeders according to the records. This is not an 
absolute guarantee, however, that the progeny will breed 
as satisfactorily as the parents. The purchaser is reasonably 
safe in selecting breeding animals if he takes special pre- 
cautions to select the descendants of animals having a long 



74 JUDGING AND SELECTION OF LIVE STOCK 

line of successful breeding ancestry. If these records are 
reinforced with a strong, vigorous sire and dam, it is reason- 
able to believe that the individual selected will prove the 
equal of its ancestors. If extremely young stock is selected 
special stress should be placed on this point, largely because 
of immaturity. In applying the breeding test the greatest 
care should be exercised in mating the untried individuals 
to those which have thoroughly proved their worth in the 
breeding herd. 

Productiveness. — Productiveness is a measure of breeding 
value as applied to prepotency in the male and prolificacy 
in the female. Prepotency refers to strength and surety 
of transmission of the qualities inherent in the sire, while 
prolificacy refers to the number of animals in the progeny 
and the continuity of transmission, especially in swine 
and sheep. The term regularity may be more logically 
used in connection with horses and cattle. These qualities 
are important in building up a herd or flock and should be 
given the most careful consideration. Breeding animals which 
are selected without having obtained a knowledge of their 
breeding record from this standpoint may not always prove 
their worth. However, if for several generations the breed- 
ing record shows a high measure of productiveness, it is only 
natural to assume that the same characteristics will be con- 
centrated in the immediate progeny. 

Natural Thrift. — Natural thrift is an inherent quality of 
the individual herd or breed. Naturally it is of greatest 
importance in the breed. Individual animals in certain 
instances often surpass other members of the herd or breed 
in size, quality, form, and thrift. Such animals, provid- 
ing their unusual growth and development does not indi- 
cate an abnormal or undesirable condition are in strong 
demand. This is a natural consequence, since such animals 
are productive of exceptional profits, both from the breeding 
and market standpoint. The blood lines of the runt pig- 
are the same as the larger and more vigorous litter mates. 
This is a condition illustrating the variation which may exist 
in different individuals. 

The pedigree may place the stamp of approval on an 
animal or on a herd, yet if the individuals are not potent or 



QUALIFICATIONS OF BREEDING ANIMALS 75 

naturally thrifty blood lines are essentially of. no value. 
Whether this condition is termed individuality or natural 
thrift, it is of extreme importance in selecting any animal. 
The close, compact horse with the smooth, symmetrical, 
round-turned body is naturally an easy keeper. Such an 
animal carries its own stamp of individuality or natural 
thrift. While the breeder should naturally be interested 
in the pedigree, the individual, herd or breed attainments 
should not be disregarded. 

Age Limitations. — Age qualifications are important, especi- 
ally with breeding animals which are to be retained for a 
considerable time in the herd. Many breeders make the 
mistake of selling their best animals because they have 
supposedly passed their real period of usefulness. A breeding 
animal is valuable as long as it continues to produce meri- 
torious animals, no matter what the age attained. Master- 
piece, for example, one of the great boars of the Berkshire 
breed, was used actively until nine years of age. After the 
breeding value of an animal is clearly established it is 
unwise to discard it from the herd merely because of 
advancing age. 

It is always preferable to purchase an animal in its prime 
as soon after its breeding qualities have been tested as 
possible. If the animal proves to be a valuable breeder the 
purchaser has the opportunity of getting the full benefit 
of the offspring possessing the blood lines of the individual. 
This is extremely important, as a few good animals from one 
extraordinary breeder are far more valuable than a much 
larger number from one or more inferior individuals. Ex- 
perience has taught that a promising animal should never 
be sacrificed without having given it a reasonable trial in the 
breeding herd. Some excellent examples may be cited where 
dairy cows have not only themselves been placed in the 
advanced registry when seventeen or eighteen years of age, 
but they also have progeny which won distinction either as 
breeders or because of their ease of meeting advanced registry 
qualifications. These facts strongly indicate that a breeding 
animal should not be sacrificed as long as the previous 
valuable records are being duplicated, regardless of the age 
of the animal. 



76 JUDGING AND SELECTION OF LIVE STOCK 

Pedigree and Individuality. — Pedigree and individuality 
should always receive first consideration in selecting pure- 
bred live stock. Animals intended for meat, milk or work 
alone are judged entirely according to their individuality. 
The lineage of the pure-bred animal is very important, 
yet individuality should not be disregarded. A purchaser 
can make no greater mistake than to select a pure-bred 
animal on pedigree alone, as the pure breeds of live stock 
contain some very inferior individuals. If the ancestors 
of an animal have all been successful breeders, and the 
individual corresponds closely to the information contained 
in the pedigree, such an animal will usually prove to be 
a successful breeder. The individual is often considered 
favorably without placing proper emphasis on the pedigree. 
This is a mistake even more serious than the former. Indi- 
viduals may be very impressive on conformation alone, yet 
uniform characteristics may not always be transmitted. 

Breeding animals are often selected on individuality 
alone. Others are selected on pedigree alone. These two 
factors, pedigree and individualtiy, should be evenly balanced 
to get the most valuable breeding animal. If the pedigree 
meets with approval and the individual is lacking in some 
essential characteristics, such as constitution, vitality, or 
quality, the chances are that the offspring will be so char- 
acterized. This emphasizes the point that a pure-bred 
animal may, because of unfavorable conditions, develop into 
a very inferior individual, which will in turn transmit unde- 
sirable characteristics to the progeny. A well-constituted 
individual may have every indication of possessing prepotent 
breeding qualities, yet some weakness occurring in its ances- 
tors renders it unable to transmit the desirable individual 
qualities. 

The only safe method to pursue in selecting breeding 
animals is to pay strict attention to both of these factors. 
( 'onstructive breeders have been very ardent in correlating 
these factors and the animals which they have succeeded 
in producing are evidence of the wisdom of such a practice. 
Amos Cruikshank, in developing the Scotch type of Short- 
horn, did place special emphasis on the individual because 



QUALIFICATIONS OF BREEDING ANIMALS 77 

he was looking for a low-set type of animal with ample 
chest capacity and a deep, thick body. His idea in selecting 
a healthy, robust animal was to get one which would stand 
the rigorous winters of northern Scotland. It was necessary 
to select a rugged animal for this purpose and consequently, 
from his standpoint, individuality was placed ahead of pedi- 
gree, although only for the reasons stated. Good judgment 
ordinarily directs emphasis on both these factors. 

Maturity. — Maturity, properly speaking, signifies the 
period at which an animal reaches full development in bone 
and muscle. • From the market standpoint a mature animal 
may not have reached or attained full growth or develop- 
ment. Markets make certain demands for animals of a 
specified weight and condition; therefore the term maturity 
is often applied to animals in proper condition to meet the 
demands of these markets. Maturity, as applied to the 
breeding animal, signifies full growth and development in 
every respect in height, weight, form, constitution, and 
utility. A horse is considered fully mature at four years of 
age, a bull or cow at three, and swine, sheep, and goats at 
two. 1 Many animals, however, reach this age without having 
attained normal maturity or development. 

This problem is of vital concern in selecting breeding 
animals. Any animal which is purchased for breeding pur- 
poses should have attained its proper degree of maturity, 
considering age, at time of purchase. Development which is 
lost through improper care, feeding, or management devi- 
talizes a breeding animal to a degree equal to the deficiency 
in maturity. The animal used for reproductive purposes 
should have attained full development, although the progeny 
is to be placed on the open market before normal maturity 
is reached. This will insure maximum growth and develop- 
ment up to the time the animal is placed on the market. 
Breeding animals which are small, weak, and immature 
in stature, produce unprofitable market animals, because 
market maturity is attained at a maximum cost on such 
animals, due to the failure of the ancestors to transmit 
this normally rapid early development. 

1 Show yard classification, except mature milking form in dairy cattle, 
is specified as five years. 



78 JUDGING AND SELECTION OF LIVE STOCK 

SUGGESTIONS ON SELECTION. 

I ii the selection of animals, especially for breeding purposes, 
there are special points of significance on which more than 
the usual stress should be placed. More attention should 
be given to the breeder and his methods, the adaptability 
of his animals, the uniformity of the breeding qualities, 
and the particular lines followed in developing the herd. 
These are points specifieally differentiated from the methods 
and practices used in judging or depicting the best indi- 
viduals. 

Breeder. — In selecting breeding animals it is a judicious 
practice to purchase from a breeder who has a substantial 
reputation for producing high-class animals and selling them 
for what they are represented to be in the pedigree. The 
pedigree of an animal is no more reliable than the breeder 
who furnishes it. Breeders who have made the greatest 
success in their work are those who have bred unswervingly 
toward a specific ideal and kept permanent breeding records, 
showing not only the lines of ancestry, but also the value of 
nil individuals in the herd or flock. This permits close 
culling and the maintenance of a high standard in the herd. 

Breeders may be divided into two classes, the true con- 
structive breeder and the dealer or vendor whose operations 
are largely limited to a multiplication of individuals. The 
former type should be patronized, as their animals and first- 
hand statements concerning them are more dependable than 
from breeders of the other sort. This is an important con- 
sideration in determining where the initial start in the pure- 
bred or even-grade herd will be obtained. The best bred 
animals originated with breeders of the constructive type. 
While few live stock breeders have attained the position 
deserving of this distinction, they should be patronized, 
whenever accessible, as the vendor of live stock is ordinarily 
not a constructive breeder. The purchaser should therefore 
take every precaution in determining the character and 
reliability of the breeder and the desirability of the animals 
which are selected from the herd. 

Pedigrees should be carefully considered, as every breeding 



SUGGESTIONS ON SELECTION 



79 



animal should have not only individuality but a pedigree 
showing them to traee at least for four or five generation-; 
to strong and unmistakable parentage. The individuals in the 
pedigree should possess qualities such as size, constitution, 
prepotency, and prolificacy. These are the things which 
make a breeding animal valuable. If the records have been 
properly kept all of this information can be obtained. The 
latter type of breeder mentioned, however, does not main- 
tain such records, and for this reason the better qualified 
breeder should be sought. 

Lineage of Animals. — Lineage is analogous to the pedigree 
of an animal. Reference is made here, however, to the 




Fig. 10. — Select breeding sheep as well as all other kir 

under field conditions where the sire, dam, and offspring n. 
ograph by authoi 

irnmediate ancestry on which the prospective purchaser 
may make a critical examination to determine their probable 
desirable or undesirable transmitting qualities. This 
examination is seldom carried out in practice beyond the 
sire and dam because the grandsires. grandarns. and other 
ancestors further removed, have usually either died, gone 
into other herds, or passed their period of active useful] 
and have therefore been eliminated from the herd. A large 
amount of valuable information may be obtained from the 
immediate sire and darn. Their type can be studied closely, 
their disposition, quality, constitution, and all other external 



SO JUDGING AND SELECTION OF LIVE STOCK 

factors which constitute the desirable breeding animal. Aside 
from their external characteristics their productiveness, uni- 
formity of breeding, and the persistence with which these 
qualities are maintained may be studied. 

One of the best examples of this is in the dairy cow where 
it is not only a question of studying the animal and her 
ancestors from the standpoint of type, but also the yearly 
milk and butter records of the individual, her ancestry, 
and even her progeny. This serves as a useful guide in 
selecting the progeny from animals in established herds. 
It is of special value to the prospective purchaser to study 
the type of the animal along with the ancestral, breeding 
and producing records. This serves as a double guarantee 
of the usefulness of the younger, untried breeding animals 
selected. In beef breeds, it is impossible to have access to 
the present records of the animal because productiveness 
and profit from beef animals are measured by the value 
of the animals resulting at maturity. The immediate 
ancestral individualities and their performance records may 
be studied, however, in a similar manner to the other con- 
siderations mentioned. 

Healthfulness. — In passing judgment on stock in the show 
ring or elsewhere, it is not always possible to determine the 
condition of the animal from the standpoint of general 
healthfulness. Unless there are unmistakable indications 
of unhealthfulness or lack of vigor, the judge or purchaser 
does not give such matters consideration, his work covering 
the rating of the animals according to their present intrinsic 
value. In selecting live stock for breeding or feeding pur- 
poses, this is a matter of vital consideration and more 
especially of animals selected for the former purpose. 

Breeding animals which are expected to reproduce for a 
period of years should be naturally healthy and vigorous. 
This has become of even greater importance, since animals 
are housed under more artificial conditions than formerly, and 
are therefore more likely to contract contagious or infectious 
diseases. 

In selecting stock for breeding purposes, the condition of 
the individuals may be used as a guide in most cases, although 



SUGGESTIONS ON SELECTION 81 

there are some diseases, especially tuberculosis, which can- 
not usually be detected by a casual examination. Some of 
the worst affected tuberculosis specimens are those which 
have on gross examination shown the least indications of the 
trouble. This is one of the few diseases which may seriously 
affect the vital organs or inner structure of the animal 
without first making an exterior impression. Even in 
an advanced stage there may not be sufficient evidence 
to detect it. The purchaser should have the tuberculin test 
applied by a competent veterinarian who can thus determine 
whether the disease is in the system. Other diseases should 
be detected before the purchase is made and thereby save 
time and multiplication of troubles in the herd. 

Breed Selection. — In selecting a breed of stock the pur- 
chaser should have a definite idea of the kind of live stock 
farming which it is desired to follow. Breeds have been 
developed along specialized lines for performing definite 
kinds of work. Practically all of them may be grouped 
into certain standard types. The prominent breeds of the 
draft type of horse, for example, include the Percheron, 
Belgian, Clydesdale, and Shire. These breeds have all been 
developed especially for draft purposes. However, not all 
of them are equally well adapted to the varying conditions 
of work, soil, feed, and climate. Here is where breed selection 
should receive important consideration. Certain individuals 
of any of these breeds may perform their work very satis- 
factorily under all conditions. Breeds as a whole, however, 
will be more successful when they are used under the con- 
ditions in which they were originally bred and developed. 

The question is often asked concerning the best breed to 
select. The answer depends entirely on the particular 
conditions of soil, feed and climate existing in the section 
as well as the local conditions on the farm. There is no 
rigid rule which can be followed in selecting a breed of live 
stock for a specific purpose. 

In making a selection, individual likes and dislikes should 

be considered and should be properly balanced with the 

other important points. After the type of the animal 

and the breed from this type is fully decided upon the 

6 



82 JUDGING AND SELECTION OF LIVE STOCK 

man becomes an important factor. Not as much depends 
on the breed after these factors have been determined as the 
kind of care and management which will be given the indi- 
vidual or herd. 

Established Herds. — Animals purchased from old estab- 
lished herds usually have a higher intrinsic value than 
individuals of apparently equal qualifications from a herd 
of shorter duration. It is better to select animals from a 
herd which has made a permanent reputation rather than 
from one which has only attained a few years of superficial 
success. If more animals were so purchased from breeders 
who maintain a single-type standard the various breeds 
of live stock would advance more rapidly than at present. 
While it would not be possible for the few old-established 
breeders of live stock to supply the numerous calls, an effort 
to patronize them would of necessity place the live stock 
breeding industry on a higher plane. 

The veteran breeder of pure-bred animals should receive 
greater commendation, as breeders of this stamp are usually 
sufficiently far-sighted to see that an extraordinary animal 
is never placed in the hands of an inexperienced breeder. 
One herd so started which proves to be a failure is very 
detrimental to the best interests of the breed. One unsuccess- 
ful herd is responsible for keeping a great many otherwise 
successful men out of the business. 

The average man can breed any number of inferior animals 
which his financial condition will justify, but to produce 
successful herd headers is a problem which only the best 
breeders have been able to accomplish. When buying 
from one of these old-established herds, regardless of whether 
it is intact, there is reasonable assurance that the purchaser 
is getting good individuals with strong, pure-bred lineage, 
individuality, and quality. 

Herd Records. — The dairy cow is the principal animal 
where the real productiveness can be actually measured. 
It is unfortunate from the standpoint of practical herd 
improvement that the capacity of all farm animals cannot 
be measured or determined in this way. Endurance or speed 
records and block tests are the only other real determinations 



SUGGESTIONS ON SELECTION 83 

which can be made on an animal. Dairy records are of value, 
depending on the length of time the tests are conducted. 
Weekly or even monthly tests should not be used in estimat- 
ing or determining the value of an animal. The variation 
in the lactation period of dairy cattle is so great that only 
tests conducted for yearly periods or longer should be given 
absolute credence. Such a test furnishes the average pro- 
duction from the high to the low point in lactation and, 
consequently, the average ability in productiveness. A 




Fig. 11. — Ayrshire cow with a record of 13,789 pounds of milk and 
564.39 pounds of butter fat in one year. Not an exceptionally high record 
but a good standard of production. 

record taken from a dairy animal in the early stages of 
lactation represents an abnormal or unnatural condition. 
Any one purchasing an animal with a record so determined 
is usually disappointed in the ultimate results. Oftentimes 
animals with large early lactation records are non-continuous 
producers and therefore unprofitable to the stockmen or 
dairymen. A record based on a low productive period may 
likewise show apparent inferiority when an average record 
for a year would show such an animal to be an acceptable 
producer. These tests should be made at a normal period of 



84 



JUDGING AND SELECTION OF LIVE STOCK 




SUGGESTIONS ON SELECTION 85 

life for a sufficient length of time and by accurate methods. 
When made in this way their value can hardly be over- 
estimated to the stockman. 

Animals descending from sires and dams with accredited 
records have the predisposition to high production. How- 
ever, in some cases they may fail to respond satisfactorily 
to the test. This is usually not true, yet the test should 
be continued to ascertain doubtful specimens. Young 
animals should be given reasonable latitude for increased 
production when mature form is reached. In the authen- 
ticated tests supervised by the breed associations a scale 
or standard for animals of various ages is maintained. Due 
allowance should be made for the undeveloped form of the 
animal. 

Endurance or Speed Records. — The American Standard- 
bred horse and the Thoroughbred (running) horse are the 
only examples, other than the dairy-cow test and the block 
test, where the actual measure of value of the individual 
can be determined. A speed record is the primary measure 
of a Standardbred animal. The Standardbred Trotting 
Association maintains two distinct standards for measuring 
the value of the trotter and the pacer. Certain provisions 
are made therein whereby an animal may enter the record 
under different requirements. While there is greater latitude 
in the method of standardization than that used by dairy 
record associations, the results all lead to the same end, a 
known fixed efficiency for performing work. 

Although tried animals always command greater values, 
the money so expended is for a good purpose, not only to the 
individual and the herd but to the breed as well. The 
high speed records acquired by the Standardbred animal are 
the result of breeding and training to a fixed standard. 
Successive lowering of records has been achieved by persistent 
methods of improvement. Selection of animals for speed 
purposes should, like the dairy animal, be based on health, 
form, capacity, and repetition of records under normal 
conditions. 

Block Tests. — The ultimate value of a finished meat 
animal is obtained by the block test. The dressing percentage 



86 JUDGING AND SELECTION OF LIVE STOCK 

can thereby be obtained, the relative proportions of bone, 
lean meat, fat and other tissues, and the quality of the 







Fig. 13. — Prime or standing rib, front view. (Photograph by author.) 




Fig. 14. — Prime or standing rib, rear view. (Photograph by author.) 



product. Unfortunately, a test of this kind is of indirect 
value to the breeder. If such determinations could be made 



SUGGESTIONS ON SELECTION 



87 



in the live animal they would be of greater practical value. 
Even under the conditions of the test, however, information 
of this character is of great value to stock breeders. It 
represents the ultimate attainment of animals and can 
therefore be applied indirectly in producing other animals 
of like qualifications. 

Breeders' Fads. — All breeders of live stock have certain 
utility requirements which should be bred and retained, 
regardless of predominating fads and changing conditions. 
This should be done notwithstanding that some breeders 
demand useless or fancy points. Breeders of live stock 




Fig. 15. — Loins, showing marbling and finish. The rib and loin cuts 
figure prominently in value in the block test. (Photograph by author.) 

as a class are not responsible for the development of useless 
qualities. Absurd type standards have been maintained, 
however, in some breeds largely to the detriment or develop- 
ment of useful or utility points. The experienced live stock 
judge will usually rate these points on their merit. In a 
close decision, all other conditions being equal, the animal 
possessing the fancy points would receive first consideration. 
If there was a decided difference in favor of the utility 
points, the animal possessing the greatest merit from this 
viewpoint should be given a first rating. 

In judging live stock, either for breeding or direct market 
purposes, the essential factors considered should be the adapt- 
ability of the animals to their ultimate use. Breeders' 



88 JUDGING AND SELECTION OF LIVE STOCK 

fads and fancies, while of temporary value and beauty, 
usually lead to ultimate failure in breed development. The 
breeder who can retain the useful qualities in his herd and 
incorporate prevailing fancies may afford to do so. When 
something must be sacrificed, however, it should be the 
fads and fancies which serve no real useful purpose. Breeders 
who are classed as constructive in their methods are the 
men who have pursued the lines of utility. Their ideal 
of animal character and usefulness which would eventually 
be in demand was portrayed ten, twenty, and fifty years 
hence. Men of this character have made the useful breeds 
of live stock. 

The breeder who has clamored to reach the topmost 
standard of popularity entirely disregarding breed useful- 
ness has left nothing to his credit in breed history. One 
of the most convincing arguments against fads is the 
generally recognized popularity of certain breed colors. 
Why one animal, family or breed should be better because 
of a peculiar fascinating color scheme is usually unsatis- 
factorily answered. Certain colors or combinations of 
colors may be more pleasing to certain classes of breeders, 
yet any requirement or quality which does not add to the 
actual value of an animal as a breeder, on the block, or for 
work, is a destructive attribute or character. The true 
constructive policy which has been followed by those breeders 
aiming at continuous improvement will remain prominent 
in raising the standard of value in the breeds of live stock. 



CHAPTER VI. 
JUDGING HORSES. 

FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS. 

Uses. — Before placing a value on a horse or giving it a 
rating in the show ring or otherwise it is necessary to have 
a definite knowledge of the particular character or kind of 
work to be performed. The horse, like the dairy animal, 
has a specialized function or work. In the former this is 
dependent largely on locomotion in one or more of its various 
phases. Whatever the character of work to be performed, 
whether for draft, for racing or for pleasure purposes, the 
degree of perfection of the organization, which, either in its 
parts or as a whole, is responsible for locomotion, measures 
the value of an animal. 

Block animals may be temporarily or permanently im- 
paired in structure and still possibly render an acceptable 
service to mankind in meat production. This is essentially 
true under certain conditions, considering the comparatively 
short period of usefulness of the block animals. While in 
the breeding classes of block animals locomotion is impor- 
tant, it is secondary to other considerations, and therefore 
of less importance than in the horse. If the structure of 
the horse is so injured through disease, accident, or from 
unsoundness, or the conformation is faulty, either in body 
or limb, it reacts directly and most forcibly on the value 
of that animal for any specialized purpose. Speaking from 
a broad viewpoint, a horse must work to be useful, and 
to work continuously and satisfactorily to the maximum 
capacity calls for a well-balanced individual in body, limb, 
and mental attainments. 

A proper study of the horse necessitates a knowledge of 
the structure responsible for the activities in the organization 

(89) 



90 



JUDGING HORSES 







FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 



91 



of the horse on which limited or maximum production of 
work depends. Manifestly, for a horse to do his greatest 
and most satisfactory service requires a perfect organization, 
which is known or determined only by a detailed study of 
type and conformation and their correlation in service. 

Structure Analogous with that of Man. 1 — The structure 
of the horse, so far as bones, joints and muscles are concerned 
is, with a few minor exceptions, very closely analogous to 
the structure of man, provided that man assumes the hori- 
zontal and quadrupedal position, and rests on the tips of his 
fingers and toes. The horse has no collar bone, the union 
between trunk and anterior extremities being wholly muscu- 
lar, and the relative length of forelegs and hindlegs is such as 
to maintain the body in a perfectly horizontal, rather than an 
inclined, attitude. He has one digit instead of five and rests 
only on the last segment of it, so that the wrist corresponds 
to the horse's knee, the knuckle to his fetlock joint and the 
three phalanges of the finger to his first and second pastern 
and pedal bones. Likewise, the knee of the man is the 
stifle of the horse, the calf of his leg the gaskin of the horse, 
his heel the horse's hock, and so on as in the foreleg. As 
the man raises his weight well up on his toes and feels the 
tension of the muscles of the thigh and lower leg he can well 

1 Gay, Principles and Practice of Judging Live Stock. 



EXPLANATION OF FIG. 16. 



1 — Mouth. 

2 — Nostrils. 

3— Nose. 

4 — Face. 

5 — Eye. 

6 — Forehead. 

7 — Ears. 

8— Poll. 

9— Throat-latch. 
10 — Jaw. 
11— Chin. 
12 — Windpipe. 
13— Neck. 
14— Crest. 



15— Withers. 

16— Shoulder bed. 

17 — Breast. 

18— Shoulder. 

19 — Forearm. 

20 — Knees. 

21 — Canons. 

22 — Fetlock joints. 

23 — Pasterns. 

24— Feet. 

25 — Feather. 

25 i — Elbow. 

26— Flank. 

27 — Heart girth. 

28— Back. 



29— Loin. 

30 — Hip bone. 

31 — Coupling. 

32— Ribs. 

33 — Belly or underline. 

34— Hindflank. 

35— Stifle. 

36— Thigh. 

37— Buttocks. 

38— Croup. 

39— Tail. 

40 — Quarters. 

41 — Gaskin or lower 

thigh. 
42 — Hocks. 



92 JUDGING HORSES 

understand what takes place when the horse "lifts" in the 
starting or moving of a load or in merely projecting his own 
body forward in locomotion. 

Mechanical Structure. 1 — The structure of the horse, mechan- 
ically considered, consists of a trunk suspended by an arch, 
the vertebral column, supported at each end by four vertical 
columns, the legs, the anatomical features of which have 
already been described. Greater weight is borne on the 
forelegs because the appended head and neck bring the centre 
of gravity well forward of the centre of the body. The 
arrangement by which the body is slung between the two 
forelegs by the great pectoral muscles and the slope of 
shoulder and pastern provide for the supporting of this 
weight, especially during locomotion, with least concussion. 
The centre of gravity being displaced further forward when 
the horse is in motion, still greater weight is thrown on 
the forelegs, the hindlegs serving as propellers. The 
articulation of the thigh directly with the pelvis conveys the 
propulsive effort throughout the entire length of the spinal 
column. The supportive action of the forelegs meets the 
propulsive action of the hindlegs in such a way as to restore 
the equilibrium of the body. 

The joints of the leg are hinge joints, capable of motion 
in two directions only, flexion and extension, while the joints 
of the hip and shoulder, points at which the legs articulate 
with the body, are ball-and-socket joints, which permit of a 
rotary motion. The legs, generally speaking, are therefore 
capable of alternate flexion and extension, which takes place 
in the order named, although the flexion of the leg as a whole 
may involve the extension of some one joint, as in the case 
of the shoulder at the commencement of flexion of the leg. 

Relation of Bone and Muscular Development. — In accordance 
with the use of the horse, it is necessary to understand the 
relation of the bones and muscles, especially in determining 
normal value, quality of structure, and the amount of natural 
muscular development. In passing judgment on a horse, 
the general shape of the bony framework and its correlation 
with the muscles should be kept in mind, as it will be helpful 
in determining the relative merits of animals in low or medium 

1 Gay, Principles and Practice of Judging Live Stock. 



FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 93 

condition. Although the character of the muscles, their 
length and thickness, vary considerably in different animals, 
the development of them is a safe guide in determining the 
ultimate value of an animal, either in draft or light horse 
service. Between these divisions there is a wide variation in 
the size, length, shape and thickness of the muscles, yet their 
relative position and the part which they play in giving an 
animal its characteristic shape and locomotion are the same. 
Draft animals have short, thick, muscles which indicate 
strength, while light animals have long and rather thin 
muscles, productive of speed. Aside from this difference the 
position of the muscles on the framework is the same, it 
being a question of a difference in form or development and 
not in location. 

Beginning with the head, this portion of the body is 
largely formed by the peculiar construction of the bony 
framework in this region, the skin being drawn rather tightly 
over it. The neck of the animal is constructed almost 
entirely by the muscles leading from the head to the shoulders. 
The shoulders are partially formed by the bony framework. 
However, a large portion of the animal in this region is 
defined by the development of the muscular tissues. The 
body proper is formed largely by the position which the 
ribs assume. Although the contour is not determined by the 
rib development, the general shape of the body is largely 
thus defined. The rear quarters are shaped largely by the 
muscle formation, especially over the croup, the upper thighs, 
and in the quarters proper. 

The muscular development of the lower thigh or gaskin is 
of such a nature that it is used as an index to the muscular 
development of the animal throughout. In an animal which 
has been highly fattened the natural muscular formation can 
be determined by this index, as this region does not accumu- 
late fatty tissue to any appreciable extent. It is therefore a 
safe guide to the development in other parts because of the 
close correlation usually existing between this and other 
regions. The legs, from the knees and hocks down, are 
formed almost entirely by the bones, tendons and ligaments. 
For this reason the canon bones are used as an index to 



94 



JUDGING HORSES 



^> 









FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 95 

the size and quality of bone which the animal possesses. 
A horse of good quality can be readily determined, for 
example, by passing the hand along the canon bone. If the 
skin is smooth, soft and oily, and the bone is hard, smooth, 
and dense it is an excellent indication of superior quality 
throughout. Other than in the head, body, and legs of the 
horse the skeleton is somewhat deceiving in the lines which 
a finished animal possesses because of the relatively large 
amount of muscle compared with the bone tissue. 

Relation of Form to Utility. — The value of a horse is funda- 
mentally based on the structure which governs or defines 
the type. The make or build of a horse is closely analogous 
or suggestive of the work which it can do. The draft horse 
with a long, broad, deep body, short, stout legs, all involved 
in securing weight and massiveness, is suggestive of power 
or work at a comparatively slow pace. The close-knit, sym- 
metrical, smooth-turned, refined, heavy harness horse is 
suggestive of style and action at the expense of both the 
maximum work of the draft horse and the speed of the light 
harness horse. The latter, although of two distinct types, is 
generally suggestive of more speed and less style than in the 
heavy harness horse. Although the light harness horse is 
a comparatively smooth-turned, symmetrical animal, the 
deeper, narrower body, longer legs, and less pronounced scale 
are all indicative of speed qualifications. The saddle horse, 
with a short back, light forehand development, high withers 



EXPLANATION OF FIG. 17. 

I.H., atlas; 7.H., seventh cervical vertebra; I.R., first thoracic vertebra; 
17. R., seventeenth thoracic vertebra; I.L., first lumbar vertebra; 6.L., 
sixth lumbar vertebra; K, sacrum; I.S., first coccygeal vertebra; 16. S., 
sixteenth coccygeal vertebra; 6.R., sixth rib; 6.K., costal cartilage; 18.R., 
last rib; 1, scapula; 1', cartilage of scapula; 2, spine of scapula; 4, humerus; 
4', external epicondyle of humerus; 5, external tuberosity of humerus; 
6, deltoid tuberosity; 7, shaft of ulna; 8, olecranon; 9, radius; 10, carpus; 
11, accessory carpal bone; 12, metacarpus; 13, digit; 14, sternum; 14", 
xiphoid cartilage; 15, ilium; 16, 16', external and internal angles of ilium; 
17, ischium; 18, femur (shaft); 19, trochanter major; 27, trochanter minor; 
28, trochanter tertius; 20, patella; 21, tibia (shaft); 21', external condyle of 
tibia; 22, tarsus; 23, fibula; 24, tuber calcis; 25, metatarsus; 26, digit. 
(After Ellenberger-Baum, Anat. f. Kilnstler.) 



96 JUDGING HORSES 

and sloping shoulders, is suggestive of an animal with weight- 
carrying capacity. Likewise the pony, which is typified in 
the Shetland and Welsh breeds, is indicative of less draft 
and slower going, comparatively speaking, than in the other 
types mentioned. 

The draft horse with weight and massiveness, in contra- 
distinction to the light horse with a lithe, rangy form, is 
capable of developing power instead of show or speed in 
their various phases. A detailed study of the horse for 
these reasons is not only desirable from a general viewpoint, 
but necessary to understand the various applications in 
work and pleasure. 

Propelling Power. — The propelling power of the horse is 
in the hindquarters, the forelegs serving as a support or 
balance to the body. Evidence of the location of the pro- 
pelling power may be seen in an animal doing actual work. 
Additional natural evidence is in the heavier muscling through 
the coupling, loin, croup and quarters, as compared with other 
regions. The energy is developed in the hindquarters, while 
the strain of the propulsion comes in a large measure on the 
coupling and loin muscles. A shallow flank is therefore in- 
dicative of a general body weakness. If the power developed 
cannot be borne by the correlated parts, additional or unusual 
development in any special region is not of any distinct value. 
That a chain is no stronger than its weakest link is evidenced 
in the horse when placed in severe work or endurance trials. 
The long, shallow body and loosely coupled animal cannot 
endure severe strain, while the short, compact and deep- 
muscled animal with a full, strong coupling can usually 
continue in service indefinitely. The degree of power de- 
velopment is dependent upon the formation of the bones 
and muscles, especially in the hindquarters. In the fore- 
hand the shoulder blade does not form a direct attachment 
with the mechanism proper, the horse having no collar bone. 
The shoulder bone is sustained by the muscles which give 
form or shape to the animal in this region. The difference 
in the mechanism of the forehand and hindquarters is thus 
indicative of the source of power and emphasizes the necessity 
of full development in the latter region. 



FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 97 

Nervous Development. — The bones and muscles of an animal 
represent the foundation machinery by which work is per- 
formed when properly connected or correlated with the 
nervous organization. From the brain, which is the centre 
of the nervous system, there is a direct connection with all 
parts of the body which act in accordance with the degree 
of nerve stimulation. The stimulation which comes from 
the nervous system without proper coordination with the 
bones and muscles, or vice versa, would be of very little 
value. There is a direct relationship between the nerves 
and muscles which stimulate work, speed, or action in its 
various phases which is dependent upon the type of animal 
under consideration. 

Animals with a sluggish temperament are simply lacking 
in nerve tone and consequently do not perform their work 
with the persistence or satisfaction of animals more highly 
developed in this respect. A horse with a nervous tempera- 
ment usually has greater intelligence, greater nerve force, 
and, therefore, more persistence or endurance in performing 
work. An irritable, erratic animal is the result of imperfect 
nerve control. This condition should be differentiated 
sharply from the nervous-tempered animal which signifies 
a more highly developed nervous organization, susceptible of 
perfect control. These three conditions of nervous develop- 
ment or nerve force are exceedingly important in judging 
horses and mules and should be given special consideration. 

Action. — Action in the horse, termed by Gay, "way of 
going," is one of the chief fundamentals of the organized 
structure. The degree of development or perfection is 
directly dependent on the nature of the machine. This is in- 
fluenced first, by the breeding, second, by the type, and third, 
by the individual. It may be otherwise affected by training 
or education and mechanical appliances. The latter two, 
however, are of chief interest to light horse breeders where 
show, speed or pleasure are involved. From a broad utility 
standpoint the breeding, type, and individuality of the animal 
are of fundamental importance. Education and mechanical 
appliances which influence action are of deep significance 
in certain types and classes of horses. They involve the 
7 



98 



JUDGING HORSES 



making or unmaking of some animals whose work is to show, 
to develop speed, or to be driven for pleasure. 

Fundamentally, there are several distinct gaits of pro- 
nounced importance which are the walk, trot, pace, canter, 
rack, gallop, running walk, fox trot and slow pace. These gaits 
are described as follows and will be applied to the various 
breeds, types and classes in the consideration of these subjects. 

Gaits. — A gait is significant of one of the characteristic 
methods used in producing locomotion. It is characterized 
by certain definite phases or features which thus gives the 
horse a distinctiveness in adapting itself to various uses, 
whether for draft, speed, road, show, or saddle purposes. 

Walk. — The walk is one of the fundamental gaits of 
horses. It is a comparatively slow four-beat gait character- 
istic of the draft horse especially and also of light horses, 
although of less significance compared with the draft animal. 
It is a distinct form of locomotion and when executed properly 
is a very useful gait. 

Trot. — The trot is a two-beat gait, the diagonal forelegs and 
hindlegs moving together. There are three distinct varieties 



Fig. 18 



Fig. 19 





Fig. 18. — Viewing action at the walk coming toward the observer. 
Observe movement of forelegs and shoulders especially. The legs should 
be placed directly under the body and there should be no winging, rolling, 
or paddling motion. (Courtesy of Indiana Agricultural Experiment Station.) 

Fig. 19. — -Viewing action at the walk going from the observer. Observe 
the snap, flexion of the joints, directness and hock movements. (Courtesy 
of Indiana Agricultural Experiment Station.) 



FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 



99 



Fig. 20 



Fig. 21 





Fig. 20. — Viewing action at the trot coming toward the observer. Observe general style 
of the animal, carriage, shoulder movements, directness and spring. (Courtesy of Indiana 
Agricultural Experiment Station.) 

Fig. 21. — Viewing action at the trot going from the observer. Observe directness, elasticity, 
snap, and carriage of hocks. (Courtesy of Indiana Agricultural Experiment Station.) 



Fig. 22 



Fig. 23 





Fig. 22. — Viewing action at the walk, side view. Observe length of stride, height, elasticity, 
flexion of joints and balance. (Courtesy of Indiana Agricultural Experiment Station.) 

Fig. 23. — Viewing action at the trot, side view. Observe length of stride, height, regularity, 
balance and hock action. (Courtesy of Indiana Agricultural Experiment Station.) 



100 JUDGING HORSES 

of the trot, including that of the trotting horse, the heavy 
harness horse, and the saddle horse. 

Pace. — The pace, like the trot, is a rapid two-beat gait 
distinguished from the latter in that the lateral foreleg and 
hindleg move together. It is characterized by more or less 
side motion and is adapted only for speed purposes or on 
very smooth roads which otherwise would seriously impede 
action or locomotion. 

Canter. — The canter is a slow gallop which is accomplished 
under more or less restraint. It is a gait characteristic of 
the saddle horse. Such animals are frequently trained to 
lead on either foot to avoid the excessive wear on the leading 
forefoot and the diagonal hindfoot. 

Rack. — The rack is a four-beat gait which is characteristic 
of the five-gaited saddle horse. It was formerly termed 
"single foot" because of its peculiar cadence. The latter 
term has been discarded, however, the term "rack" being 
used by the American Saddle Horse Association. 

Gallop. — The gallop is a three-beat gait, two diagonal legs 
moving together, the one beat of the two falling between the 
successive beats of the other two legs. 

Running Walk. — The running walk is a four-beat gait 
intermediate between the walk and the rack. It is an easy 
gait on both the horse and the rider. 

Fox Trot. — The fox trot is a broken trot characterized 
by more or less of a pace as indicated by the movements 
of the animal. This gait, like the running walk, is character- 
istic of the five-gaited saddle horse. 

Detailed Structural Form. — The detailed structure of the 
horse will be considered under one general outline as follows : 

Head and Neck. — The head should be neat and clean, 
clear in outline, and well defined. It should have length, 
depth and breadth proportionate to the size of the animal. 
The lower jaw should be broad and open in the angle to 
accommodate the larynx when the neck is flexed and 
extended. The contour of the head should be clearly denned, 
thus indicating superior quality. 

Forehead. — The forehead should be broad, flat, and 
straight. Good width between the eyes is especially sig- 
nificant of intelligence. 



FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 101 

Ears. — The ears should be medium in size, erect, pointed, 
and show superior quality by having a fine, clean coat of 
hair. 

Eyes. — The eyes should be large, bright, clear, and promi- 
nent. There should be no indication of present or recurring 
disease. 

Muzzle. — The muzzle should be large, broad, deep, and 
indicate quality. A large, coarse muzzle is not associated 
with superior quality throughout the animal. The lips 
should be regular, and the teeth sound, with no indication 
of alterations having been made. 

Nostrils. — The nostrils should be large and open, which 
is indicative of a plentiful supply of air in the lungs. 

Neck. — The neck should be proportionate in length, 
depth, and thickness to the type of the animal. The crest 
should be well developed, the throat-latch fine, with the 
neck smoothly joining the shoulders. 

Forehand. — Withers. — The withers should extend high, 
well back, and should be free from scars or other alterations. 
Low withers are objectionable. 

Shoulders. — The shoulders should be long, smooth, and 
sloping. Straight shoulders are usually associated with short, 
upright pasterns. Both of these conditions are antagonistic 
to free action and freedom from diseases of the feet. 

Arms. — The arms should be well muscled and carry well 
forward. Such a formation is usually associated with sloping 
or oblique shoulders. 

Forearms. — The forearms should be broad, deep, straight, 
and muscular. The length should be proportionate to the 
type of the animal. 

Knees. — The knees should be long, broad, smooth and 
deep, thus indicating a well-supported animal, and ample 
space for muscle attachments. 

Canons. — The canons should be short, broad, and flat. 
The tendons should set well back, which gives squareness of 
form to the leg and thus added strength. Cut-under canons 
are very objectionable, showing permanent faultiness in an 
animal. 

Fetlocks. — The fetlocks should be wide, smooth, regular, 
and strongly supported. 



102 



JUDGING HORSES 



Skin 

Tendon of common extensor 

Bursa 

Capsule of fetlock joint 
Cavity of fetlock joint 



/4' 




Cavity of pastern joint 



Cavity of coffin joint 

Corium 
of periople 

Periople "^Jffl 
Coronary Fa 
corium 

Wall 
Laminae 



Middle sesamoidean Kg. 
Digital synovial sheath 
Cavity of pastern joint 
Superficial sesamoidean lig. 
Deep flexor tendon 
Distal end of digital sheath 



Digital cushion 



Sole Corium of sole 

Fig. 24. — An important consideration in judging horses. Sagittal section 
of digit and distal part of metacarpus of horse: A, metacarpal bone; B, 
first phalanx; C, second phalanx; D, third phalanx; E, distal sesamoid bone; 
1, volar pouch of capsule of fetlock joint; 2, intersesamoidean ligament; 3, 4, 
proximal end of digital synovial sheath; 5, ring formed by superficial flexor 
tendon; 6, fibrous tissue underlying ergot; 7, ergot; 8, 9, 9', branches of 
digital vessels; 10, distal ligament of distal sesamoid bone; 11, suspensory 
ligament of distal sesamoid bone; 12, 12', proximal and distal ends of bursa 
podotrochlearis. By an oversight the superficial flexor tendon (behind 4) 
is not marked. (Courtesy of L. W. Sisson, from Anatomy of Domestic 
Animals.) 



FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 103 

Pasterns. — The pasterns should be long, strong, and 
sloping. Short, straight pasterns indicate imperfect action 
and lack of wearing qualities. 

Legs. — The legs should, as a whole, be straight, strong, and 
well placed under the body. A perpendicular line dropped 
from the point of the shoulder should divide the leg and foot 
into two lateral halves. A line dropped from the point of 
the scapula should divide the elbow-joint and pass through 
the centre of the foot. 

Feet. — The feet should be large, round, open at the heel, 
and the sole concave. The walls should be straight and the 
slope should correspond to the slope of the pasterns. The 
bars should be strong, the frog large and elastic, the heels 
wide, the horn dense, dark colored, and smooth in texture. 

Body. — Heart girth. — The heart girth is synonymous 
with the chest. It should be deep, broad and full, thus 
giving ample space for the heart and lungs. 

Ribs. — The ribs should be long, well arched, and placed 
close together. Good length- is indicative of full depth in 
the body, and close spacing to compactness or close knit form. 

Back. — The back should be short, straight, broad, and 
strong. 

Loins. — The loins should be smooth, broad, strong, deep, 
and full, which is indicative of a close, full-made coupling, 
one of the chief characteristics of a well-made animal. 

Underline. — The underline should be long and well let 
down in the flanks, which indicates good depth of body. 

Hindquartees. — Hips. — The hips should be wide, level, 
and smoothly covered. Prominent hips are usually indica- 
tive of open conformation. 

Croup. — The croup should be long, smooth, level, broad, 
and muscular. A dropping croup is not only unsightly 
but objectionable from the standpoint of power or action. 

Thighs. — The thighs should be long, muscular, and deep. 
The width of the animal from the hips should be carried 
perpendicularly to the ground, a line thus drawn coinciding 
with the thighs. 

Gaskins or Lower Thighs. — The gaskins or lower thighs 
should be long, broad, and muscular. The muscular develop- 



104 JUDGING HORSES 

ment in this region is indicative of the natural muscular 
development of an animal, thus making it possible to judge 
the muscular development as well in high as in low condition. 




Fig. .25. — Right forehoof of horse, ground surface: 1, basal or ground 
border of wall; 2, laminae of wall; 3, angle of wall; 4, bar; 5, sole; 5', angle 
of sole; 6, white line (junction of wall and sole); 7, apex of frog; 8, central 
sulcus of frog; 9, 9, collateral sulci between frog and bars; 10, 10, bulbs of 
hoof. (Courtesy of L. W. Sisson, from Anatomy of Domestic Animals.) 

Hocks. — The hocks should be wide, deep, smooth, and 
strongly supported. The point of the hocks should be 
prominent. The size should be in proportion to the weight 
of the horse. The hocks are of fundamental significance in 



FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 105 

the horse because of their direct correlation with efficient 
power and speed development. 

Canons. — The canons should be short, strong, and broad, 
and the tendons should be well set back. 

Fetlocks. — The fetlocks should be strong and well sup- 
ported. Weak fetlock-joints in the hindfeet as well as in 
the forefeet are very objectionable. 

Pasterns. — The pasterns should be long, sloping, and 
strongly supported. 

Legs. — The hindlegs of a horse are of unusual significance 
and should, therefore, be straight, strong, and well supported 
throughout. A perpendicular line dropped from the point 
of the buttock should divide the leg and the foot into two 
equal parts. A perpendicular line dropped from the hip- 
joint to the ground should divide the foot, meeting the 
ground half-way between the heel and the toe. 

Tail. — The tail should be set high, well carried, and 
should show quality by the character of the hair thereon. 

Determination of Age. — Since the use of the horse is depend- 
ent on the amount and continuity of work performed and 
not on the quality of an edible product, as in meat-producing 
animals, which are influenced by age only under certain 
specified conditions, it is important to know the fundamentals 
of age determination. While in a general way the age of an 
animal can be approximately determined by their general 
appearance or condition, the teeth are the most reliable 
indications for practical usage. In judging age by the teeth 
it is very important to know the condition of the normal 
mouth, as the teeth are at times seriously affected by the 
soil on which animals graze or by the character and quantity 
of feed received. Liberal feeding on hard or flinty feeds 
may apparently hasten maturity, while light feeding on soft 
feeds or pasturing may retard it. 

The teeth are also "bishoped" sometimes by unscrupulous 
dealers to renew the appearance of the cups which gradually 
disappear with age. This operation is performed by the use 
of a hot iron which burns a cup in the center of the teeth, 
thus making it appear that the natural cups are still present. 
Up to the age of five years the order of appearance of the six 



106 



JUDGING HORSES 



permanent incisors in each jaw is indicative of the age. 
After this period the cups are relied upon to determine the 
age up to eleven years. After this second period of develop- 
ment the angle or slope of the teeth from the jaws and the 
general appearance of the animal are the only guides. While 

some variations may occur in 
the displacement of the tem- 
porary teeth by the perma- 
nent ones and in the rapidity 
of the disappearance of the 
cups, the appearance of the 
teeth will show, within rea- 
sonable limits, the age of 
horses with normal mouths. 
Temporary or Milk Teeth. 
— The age of young animals 
may be determined by the 
characteristic appearance of 
the milk or temporary teeth, 
which are twelve in number, 
each jaw having six incisors. 



Infundibulimi 

Central enamel 
Dentine 
Peripheral 
enamel 

Cement 




Peripheral enamel 
Dentine 
Central enamel 
Cement 



Cement 




Fig. 26. — Longitudinal section of 
lower incisor tooth of horse : C, pulp 
cavity. Cement is shown in the 
infundibulum, but is not marked.) 
Courtesy of L. W. Sisson, from Ana- 
tomy of Domestic Animals.) 



Fig. 27. — Cross-section of lower 
incisor tooth of horse: /, infundi- 
bulum. (Courtesy of L. W. 
Sisson, from Anatomy of Domestic 
Animals.) 



The temporary teeth are slender, narrow, constricted at the 
neck, and much whiter than the permanent teeth. The 
permanent incisors are broader, thicker, and of a darker 
color. The temporary incisors, which are all visible at one 
year, remain intact until the two central temporary incisors 
are replaced by the first pair of permanent central incisors. 



F UXDAMEXTAL CONSIDER A TIOXS 



107 



This occurs when the animal is two and one-half to three 
years of age, the remainder of the temporary teeth being 
replaced as described subsequently. 

Order of Appearance of Incisors. — The permanent incisors 
of both the upper and lower jaws appear at the same time, 
and in determining the age during this stage of dentition 
reference should be made to the teeth in both jaws. The. 
horse has six permanent incisors in each jaw in a full mouth 
and these appear as follows: 






Fig. 28. — Lower incisor and 
canine teeth of horse, five years 
old: 7 1 ,/ 2 , J 3 , incisors: C, canine. 
(Courtesy of L. W. Sisson, from 
Anatomy of Domestic Animals.) 



Fig. 29. — Upper incisor and 
canine teeth of horse five years old : 
I 1 , I 2 , I 3 , incisors; C, canine. 
(Courtesy of L. W. Sisson, from 
Anatomy of Domestic Animals. J 



The center pair of incisors appear first, displacing the 
temporary pair when the animal is two and one-half to three 
years old. The second or intermediate pair displace the tem- 
porary teeth when the animal is three and one-half to four 
years old, and the third or corner pair displaces the corner 
temporary incisors at four and one-half to five years old. 
When these permanent incisors are all completely up and in 
wear the horse has a full mouth. After the animal reaches 
this five-year stage, the age is determined by the order of 
disappearance of the cups in the incisors. 



108 JUDGING HORSES 

Disappearance of the Cups. — The cups, which appear on 
the tables of the teeth, are quite reliable indications of age 
from the five to the eleven-year stage. At five years the 
cups in the central pair of incisors of the lower jaw show 
some wear, but it is not until the animal reaches the six-year 
stage that they disappear. The canines in males may appear 
at this age. At seven years of age the intermediate incisors 
lose almost all trace of their cups through wear, and at eight 
the corner incisors are worn and free from the cups described 
at the earlier stage. 

At nine years of age the cups are either worn or disappear 
from the central pair of incisors in the upper jaw. At ten 
the cups of the two intermediate incisors have worn until 
they have disappeared, and at eleven the cups of the corner 
incisors have disappeared. After a horse passes this stage 
the age may be determined by the general appearance and 
condition of the teeth. As the age advances the tables or 
biting surface of the incisors become more triangular and 
the teeth spring from the jaw at a greater angle. 

Method of Examination. — The examination of a horse 
involves two distinct viewpoints, the one from that of the 
purchaser and the other that of the judge in the show ring. 
The methods of examination are somewhat different, owing 
to the two distinct viewpoints from which animals are 
examined. 

Involving the Purchaser. — The purchaser of a horse is 
more deeply interested in the peculiar traits or any unsound 
conditions which may prevail than is the show ring judge 
who merely passes on the value of an animal as indicated 
by a mere external examination. The purchaser should 
examine the horse in the stall to note how he stands and any 
other peculiarities which may be present. An examination 
should be made for cribbing, weaving, or other objectionable 
stable habits. The horse should then be backed out of the 
stall, noting closely any peculiarities in the use of the legs, 
particularly the hindlegs, or any serious disorders of the 
nervous system. Spavin may often be first detected by 
this examination. 

After the horse is taken out the eyes should be examined 



FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 109 

carefully, after which he should be observed at the walk, 
and at the trot, in both cases, as he comes toward, passes by, 
and goes from the observer. Defects in action, lameness, or 
other peculiarities may thus be detected. Any indications of 
stable vices, lameness, unsoundness or defects can usually be 
detected in this examination. 

After completing the examination in the stall and while 
in action, the horse should be hitched to an appropriate 
vehicle and be given rather severe exercise to bring out any 
weakness or unsoundness in the wind. In making this 
examination, care should be taken to see that an apparent 
wind trouble is not due to an improperly adjusted harness. 
After the exercise has been completed the ear should be 
held close to the nostrils to determine whether wind troubles 
are present. A thorough examination should thus be made 
of the entire animal to determine any unusual condition 
which may exist. If in the case of a breeding animal an 
examination of the records from the standpoint of breeding 
qualities is important. 

Involving the Judge. — The judge of horses in the modern 
show ring does not usually have the responsibility of 'detecting 
disease or unsoundness. This work is done by the official 
veterinarian who makes a report on such animals and their 
condition from the standpoint of soundness thus determined. 
The judge may not apparently follow a definite procedure 
in making the examination. However, such a course is 
desirable. The examination should be started by viewing 
the animal from in front, thus noting the expression, the 
features of the head, width and depth of chest, and the 
directness and conformation of the feet and legs. He 
should then pass to the side, noting the length, depth, 
weight, and scale. The slope of the shoulder, length of the 
back and carriage of the head and neck, height of the withers, 
and the conformation of the feet and legs, back, loin, croup, 
thighs, and flanks should be examined. 

From the rear view the width and depth of the hind- 
quarters, the direction and conformation of the legs and 
feet should be determined. The width and slope of the 
croup should also be noted, the tail setting and the fulness 



110 JUDGING HORSES 

of the quarters. After this examination is completed the 
opposite side should be examined to determine any unusual 
condition which might be present. 

The animal should then be moved, noting the various 
phases of action as the animal comes toward, passes by, and 
goes from the observer. The length, height, directness, 
regularity, and balance of the stride should be observed. 
This completes the examination, and after having reached 
this point a balance of the animal should be effected. Many 
times an animal which appears to be a perfect individual 
from the standpoint of conformation is very defective in 
action, thus giving it a very much lower rating than other- 
wise. The importance of action can be best determined 
by making a close examination for the various conditions 
of unsoundness, defects, and peculiarities in the action. The 
value of a horse cannot be determined until the actual 
combined examination is made when at rest and in motion. 

CLASSIFICATION OF HORSES. 

Horses may be divided into two fundamental divisions for 
the purpose of studying their distinctive conformation and 
uses. The first includes the draft or power division, and the 
second, the light horse division which is subdivided into 
several other type and breed groupings, depending on breed 
qualifications and the specific use of the animals. These 
two main divisions will be adhered to in discussing the 
subject, being used only for arbitrary purposes. 

Horses are more specificially divided into groups or types, 
breeds, classes, and subclasses. The five groups or types 
are represented in the draft, heavy harness, light harness, 
saddle, and pony groups. These five groups or types may be 
subdivided into the various pure breeds which conform to the 
broad use or purpose, and second, into specific market and 
show classes. In the first division of the groups or types 
into breeds, the distinction is based solely on pure breeding 
or blood lines, or on certain standard qualifications and 
requirements. The second division of the types into classes, 
and the third into subclasses is based on specialized uses 



CLASSIFICATION OF HORSES 



111 



or purposes, regardless of blood lines or purity of breeding. 
While these classes and subclasses may contain pure speci- 
mens of the various breeds represented in the groups or 
types, this is not a requirement. 



Classification of Horses. 



Breed. 



Type. 



Class. 



Subclass. 





Percheron 




Drafter ( ^ ht 


Draft 


Belgian 




\ Heavy 


Division « 


Clydesdale 
Shire 


• Draft 


^ ( Eastern and 




. Suffolk 




1 Chunk v ex P° rt 
1 .barm 

( Southern 
■ Expresser 




Cleveland bay 




J Coach horse 




German coach 


> Heavy 1 


Park horse 




French coach 


harness 


Cob (intermediate with 




Hackney 




Cab [pony type) 




■ 


> Runabout 




American 


> Light ( Speed or f Trotter 
harness \ race horse \ Pacer 




Standardbred 






M Roadster 




. 


1 Combination 






[ horse 


Light 


' 




J Walk-trot- 


Division 






canter 




American 




Gaited 




Saddle horse 




[ Light 






• Saddle 


Hunter I Medium 

[ Heavy 
Race horse 




Thoroughbred 




runner 




Running horse 




Cavalry 




Shetland 


f Polo pony 




Welsh 


Pony \ Shetland (under 46 inches) 




Hackney 1 


I 


11-2 to 14-2 



Conformity to all of the attributes, namely, weight 
quality, conformation, symmetry, temperament, disposition, 
style, action and finish, which constitutes utility or purpose 
in the specific division under observation, is the basis of 



1 Hackney under 14-2 hands, with breed characteristics accentuated. 



112 JUDGING HORSES 

distinction. Because of the varied and specialized purposes 
for which horses are used, there is occasionally an overlapping 
or combination of classes. This fact is brought out in case 
of the expresser, runabout, and combination horse. It 
is recognized that classifications vary somewhat, depending 
on the authority and the basis on which they are made. 
Gay divides horses into four types, namely, power, speed, 
show, and saddle. This division is made on the basis of 
mechanics, each type being subdivided into classes in 
accordance with market and show ring demands. 



CHAPTER VII. 
JUDGING DRAFT HORSES. 

DRAFT GROUP OR TYPE. 

The term draft is significant of weight, massiveness, 
and, therefore, the development of power. An animal 
possessing these qualifications has certain definite attributes 
which qualify it for work of this character. The draft type 
is divided into three generally significant classes, namely: 
drafter, logger, and chunk. 

Draft Conformation. — The form of the draft horse should 
be massive and compact. Animals of this type should 
be low set, wide and deep in the body, with strong bone 
and deep muscling, both of which are characteristic of the 
horse with power attainments. These attributes should be 
correlated so that the animal possesses perfect symmetry 
throughout. A draft horse properly made should be low 
set, square and compact and at the same time symmetrical 
from every angle. Weight properly distributed is the first 
essential of a draft animal. Based on weight alone, a horse 
might possess sufficient weight, yet because of long legs and 
a rangy body such an animal would not be acceptable on 
the market or in draft service. 

From a structural viewpoint the head should be long, 
broad and deep, yet symmetrical with the other parts of 
the body. The neck should be of sufficient length and depth 
to harmonize perfectly with the weight of the animal. The 
head and neck should blend smoothly, and the neck should 
deepen gradually toward the shoulders, which should be long 
and sloping, and extend well back in order to give strength 
in the back, proper style, and symmetry. A moderately 
sloping shoulder on a draft horse is usually associated with a 
8 (113) 



114 



JUDGING DRAFT HORSES 



short back, which is characteristic of a typical draft animal. 
The back should be short, broad, and deeply muscled. The 
loin should be broad, level, heavily muscled, and should be 
indicative of a close, short coupling. The ribs should be well 
arched, closely placed, and the chest should be deep and 
broad on the floor. The flank should be full and low. 
The hindquarters should be broad, deep, the croup level, 
well muscled, and the thighs deep and compact. The bone 




Fig. 30. — Characteristics of a good draft gelding, illustrating the draft type. 

should be large, square, fine and dense, and the forearm 
and gaskin heavily muscled. As a whole, the draft animal 
should be broad, deep, compact, and massive in appearance 
throughout. 

Quality. — Quality in the draft animal signifies the same 
condition as applied to the light horse or other classes of 
live stock. However, in the light horse there is usually 
a more significant indication of quality in the hair, skin, and 
bone. While quality is just as essential in the draft horse 
it is usually not present to the same degree. The principal 



DRAFT GROUP OR TYPE 115 

indications of quality are in the head, hair, hide, and bone. 
The head should be broad, deep, and clearly outlined by 
distinct facial features. Each part of the head should be 
clearly outlined, there being no evidence of plainness or 
lack of definition or refinement. The head is one of the 
best indications of quality. It usually portrays intelligence 
also, and indirectly constitution and form requirements.. 
A large, coarse ear, a straight undefined face and head, and a 
large, plain muzzle portray a general lack of quality, char- 
acter, and intelligence. A fine glossy, mossy coat of hair, 
soft to the touch is indicative of what may be found beneath. 
The skin on an animal with a coat of hair so characterized 
is usually soft, pliable, and elastic. The bone is an unusual 
indication of quality. If it is fine, hard and dense with fine 
texture, it is ordinarily accompanied by a corresponding 
degree of quality throughout the body. It may be possible 
to get too much quality, although as much should be apparent 
as consistent with the required weight and substance of the 
draft animal. 

Constitution and Endurance. — The value of the draft horse 
is significantly magnified by the amount of constitution and 
endurance possessed. The indications of constitution are 
largely in the development of the muzzle, nostrils, head, and 
chest. The head should be long, broad, and clearly defined. 
The muzzle should be broad, deep, and the nostrils large and 
open to give free access of air into the lungs. The jaw 
bones should be long and broad at the angle or opening. 
The chest should be broad and deep to accommodate the 
vital organs. A broad spring of rib and a short coupling 
are indicative of constitutional development. The correla- 
tion and compactness of the body measures quite accurately 
the amount of constitution which an animal possesses. 

Endurance is closely associated with constitutional 
development. The value of a draft animal is therefore 
dependent in a large measure on its enduring or lasting 
qualities. Endurance is associated and otherwise indicated 
by the structural condition of the animal, especially in the 
head, chest, coupling and the character of the bone, skin 
and hair. A coarse-textured bone, rough, coarse hair, lack 



116 JUDGING DRAFT HORSES 

of definition and other quality attributes are significant of low 
enduring qualities. Such development when associated with 
inferior constitutional development is doubly significant of 
inferior lasting or enduring qualities. 

Temperament. — The temperament of an animal is generally 
portrayed by its general conformation and condition. The 
work of the draft animal is to move loads or propel weight. 
This naturally suggests the massive, compact form previously 
described and therefore a less active temperament than in 
the light animal, which is naturally characterized by unusual 
life and vigor. While there is usually a wide variation in 
the temperament or nerve force of the draft and light ani- 
mals, sluggishness should not characterize either type. The 
temperament of the draft horse is usually lymphatic. Any 
tendency toward sluggishness, however, is especially objec- 
tionable, as the draft animal should work willingly and con- 
sistently. There should be a sufficient tone of the nervous 
system maintained, therefore, to insure this condition. 

Style and Action. — The style and action of the draft horse 
is hardly comparable to that of the lighter types of horses, 
although unusual style and action are often exhibited. 
Draft horses are of lower breeding than light horses and are, 
therefore, not capable of exhibiting comparable attainments 
with the lighter animals. However, there should be every 
indication of style consistent with the type in the general 
make-up of the animal. The head should be clean in outline, 
the neck arched, the shoulders sloping, the body closely 
coupled, the quarters well muscled, and the body low set. 
The draft horse should exhibit compactness and symmetry 
of form throughout. 

The action of the draft horse, while not as highly developed 
as in the light horse, should possess all the requisites of the 
associated gaits. Every phase of the action should be com- 
parable with the type of the animal in question. Both 
the walk and the trot should be characterized with a long, 
regular stride and a smooth, straight, well-balanced action 
otherwise. The walk is the most important gait of the 
draft animal. It should be characterized by directness, 
regularity, smoothness, and balance. Any deviation from 



DRAFT GROUP OR TYPE 117 

this line of action is objectionable as it shows faulty con- 
formation and may injure the value of the individual in 
question or that of future generations. 

A stilted or rolling motion caused by a wide front or by 
the legs being set improperly on the body should be discrimi- 
nated against severely. A winging or paddling motion of 
the feet, either at the walk or trot, is extremely objection- 
able. A free, quick, snappy walk and trot are usually 
correlated with other important attributes such as style, 
breeding, individuality, and finish. 



Score Card for Draft Horses. 

Perfect score. 

General Appearance — 19 Points. 

Height: estimated.... ..hands, actual... 

Weight: over 1600 lbs.; estimated lbs. score accord- 
ing to age 6 

Form: broad, massive, evenly proportioned, symmetrical, 

blocky 4 

Quality: refined; bone clean, large, strong; tendons clean, 
denned, prominent; skin and hair fine; "feather," if present, 

silky 6 

Temperament: energetic; disposition, good 3 

Head and Neck — 8 Points. 

Head: proportionate size, clean cut, well carried; profile 

straight 1 

Forehead: broad, full 1 

Eyes: bright, clear, full, same color 1 

Ears: medium size, well carried, alert 1 

Muzzle: neat; nostrils large, flexible; lips thin, even, firm . 1 

Lower Jaw: angles wide, space clean 1 

Neck: muscled, arched; throat-latch, fine; windpipe largo . 2 
Forehand — 22 Points. 

Shoulder: moderately sloping, smooth, snug, extending well 

back . .... 3 

Arm: short, strong muscled, thrown back, well set ... 1 

Forearm: long, wide, clean, heavily muscled ..... 2 

Knees: straight, wide, deep, strong, clean 2 

Canons: short, wide, clean; tendons clean, defined, promi- 
nent 2 

Fetlocks: wide, straight, strong, clean 1 

Pasterns: moderately sloping, strong, clean 3 

Feet: large, even size, sound; horn dense, waxy; soles concave; 
bars strong, full; frogs large, elastic; heels wide, one-half 
length of toe, vertical to ground 8 

Carried forward 49 



118 JUDGING DRAFT HORSES 

Perfect score. 

Brought forward 49 

Body — 9 Points. 

Chest: deep, wide; breast bone low; girth, large .... 2 

Ribs: deep, well sprung, closely ribbed to hip 2 

Back: broad, strong, muscular 2 

Loins: short, wide, thick muscled 2 

Underline: low, flanks full 1 

Hindquarters — 32 Points. 

Hips: broad, smooth, level, well muscled 2 

Croup: wide, heavily muscled, not markedly drooping . . 2 

Thighs: deep, broad, strong, muscular 3 

Quarters: plump with muscle, deep 2 

Stifles: large, strong, muscular, clean 2 

Gaskins: (lower thighs) long, wide, clean, heavily muscled . 2 
Hocks: large, strong, wide, deep, clean, well set .... 8 
Canons: short, wide, clean; tendons clean, defined, promi- 
nent 2 

Fetlocks: wide, straight, strong, clean 1 

Pasterns: moderately sloping, strong, clean 2 

Feet: large, even size, sound; horn dense, waxy; soles con- 
cave; bars strong, full; frogs, large, elastic; heels, wide, 

one-half length of toe, vertical to ground 6 

Action — 10 Points. 

Walk: fast, elastic, regular, straight 6 

Trot: free, springy, balanced, straight 4 

Total 100 

Breed and Class Characteristics. — The draft type of 
horse is characterized by five distinct breeds, namely: the 
Percheron, Belgian, Clydesdale, Shire, and Suffolk. While 
the latter is not of special significance, it is well worthy of 
consideration. From these breeds are drawn the various 
market and show classes of draft horses which include 
drafters, loggers, and chunks. The drafter is subdivided 
into light and heavy, and chunks into eastern and export, 
farm and southern. These terms are used to distinguish for 
market and show purposes only. 

The following descriptions are used to bring out the chief 
characteristics of the draft breeds and the market and show 
classes which are produced, either in the pure bred or grade 
form, from these breeds. 

Percheron. — The original home of the Percheron horse is 
La Perche, France. The breed has been developed into an 
excellent type of draft animal except for some lack of scale 



DRAFT GROUP OR TYPE 



119 



and inclination to light bone. The general appearance 
of the Percheron is characteristic of the draft type, although 
specimens of the breed possess more rotundity, smoothness 
of form, general activity and refinement than other draft 
breeds. Stallions of approved breeding should weigh 2000 




Fig. 31. — Percheron stallion. 



to 2200 pounds. The weight of the mares ranges from 1600 
to 1800 pounds. The two colors most in favor are gray and 
black, the former being more desirable usually. Other 
colors such as bays, browns, and chestnuts, characterize 
the breed. One of the chief distinguishing characteristics 
of the Percheron breed is the weight which they attain, 
at the same time retaining quality and refinement more 



120 



JUDGING DRAFT HORSES 



characteristic of the light horse breeds. The temperament 
of the Percheron is energetic, the disposition good, ranking 
above other draft breeds. The action of the Percheron is 
rather unusual because of the extreme flexion possessed 
compared with other draft breeds. The distinguishing 
features of the Percheron from other breeds is the unusual 
refinement, lighter bone, action, and high station. The bone 
is unusually clean, not having feather on the legs. Com- 




Fig. 32. — Percheron mare. 



pared with the Clydesdale and the Shire the Percheron is 
smaller, having less substance, and a more characteristic 
smooth turned body and finish. 

The Percheron breed is sometimes erroneously designated 
as Norman or French Draft. The latter terms are not now in 
use. They include several types of draft horses produced in 
France but not generally recognized as of great significance in 
this country. Certificates of registration should specify the 
Percheron breed approved both in France and America if 



DRAFT GROUP OR TYPE 121 

an imported animal and trace to properly recognized stock 
if home-bred. 

Belgian. — The Belgain breed of draft horses is a native 
of Belgium and in this country has reached a rather promi- 
nent position among other draft breeds. This breed is noted 
for its extreme low station, massiveness, and compactness. 
The head is square, the neck very short, usually having a 




Fig. 33. — French Draft stallion. 

rather heavy crest. The body is broad, deep, and exceed- 
ingly compact. One of the chief objections to the Belgian 
has been the legs, which are inclined to be large and undefined, 
both in the joints and in the canons, pasterns, and feet. 
This objection has been overcome, somewhat, by careful 
breeding. The two colors usually predominating are roan 
and chestnut, although other colors such as bay, brown, 



122 



JUDGING DRAFT HORSES 



gray, and black occur. Because of the extreme compact- 
ness of the Belgian breed, grade animals are very popular 
for feeding purposes. 

The general appearance of the Belgian is that of a massive, 
robust-constitutioned animal. The body is broad and deep, 




Fig. 34. — Belgian stallion. 



the coupling short, and the hindquarters exceptionally well 
developed. The action is characteristic of their broad, 
massive development. Considering the weight and mas- 
siveness of the breed, the action is very smooth and free. 
The chief objection to the Belgian is their tendency to 
grossness, especially in the legs, rather small feet, short 
neck, and general lack of refinement. The legs are devoid 



DRAFT GROUP OR TYPE 123 

of the long hair or feather characteristic of the Clydesdale 
and Shire breeds. The roan color of the Belgian is becoming 
very characteristic and in many cases it is a distinguishing 
mark in some of the leading specimens of the breed which 
have been shown in this country. Compared with other 
draft breeds the Belgian is lower set, broader, deeper, and 
more compact throughout. Specimens do not possess as . 
much refinement as the Clydesdale or the Percheron breeds. 

Clydesdale. — The Clydesdale breed originated in Scotland 
along the river Clyde. The breed is especially noted for 
its quality and characteristic action. The weight varies 
from 2000 pounds upward in stallions of approved breeding 
and in mares from 1600 to 1800 pounds. The color varies, 
including bays, browns, blacks, and grays. Gray is not a 
characteristic color, although at one time it was so. The 
breed is characterized by white markings, especially on the 
face and the four legs. White occurs sometimes in large 
splashes on the body and there may be an intermixture of 
white throughout more or less of the body. The conforma- 
tion of the Clydesdale is not as drafty as in other breeds. The 
body is rather long, comparatively shallow, the ribs lacking 
in length, and the back somewhat inclined to be low. The 
shallowness of the body gives specimens of the breed a 
rather upstanding appearance. Although the weight is 
acceptable, the animal is not built to the best advantage for 
draft purposes, especially as compared with other more 
massive compact breeds. 

The action of the Clydesdale is one of its most accept- 
able features. The stride is long, quick, regular, and well 
balanced. The hock is unusually strongly constructed, and 
the action corresponds with this condition. The quality of 
the Clydesdale is an important attribute, this characteristic, 
as in the Percheron, being unusually developed. Action is 
exemplified in the slope of the shoulders, pasterns, and leg 
development. The breed is characterized by feather on 
the legs and open-textured, shelly feet. The chief criti- 
cisms of the breed are deficiency in scale, their short-rib 
development and a criticism of the color markings, especially 
the white, which has no special distribution. The Clydes- 



124 



JUDGING DRAFT HORSES 




Fig. 35. — Clydesdale stallion. 




Fig. 36. — Clydesdale mare. 



DRAFT GROUP OR TYPE 



125 



dale breed is comparable in many respects to the Shire, 
although it possesses much better quality and action but less 
scale than the latter. 

Shire. — The Shire horse originated in England. It is in 
many respects a complement to the Clydesdale, which is 
a product of Scotland. The Shire is one of the heaviest 
draft breeds, from this standpoint giving them a peculiar, 
draft horse characteristic. The colors of the Shire are black, 




Fig. 37. — Shire stallion. 



bay, brown, chestnut, roan, and gray. The breed possesses 
a very wide variation in respect to color. It is characterized 
by white points similar to those in the Clydesdale. While 
the Shire possesses unusual substance, the breed is lacking 
in quality, especially as compared with the Clydesdale. The 
hair and the bone have a rather coarse, meaty tendency, 
while the hoof is often open and shelly in texture. The 
contour of the Shire is fair. The head is rather large and 
inclined to be plain. The same condition is exhibited 



126 



JUDGING DRAFT HORSES 



throughout the animal, meatiness being too closely asso- 
ciated with the breed. 

Closely associated with the lack of quality and finish is 
the rather sluggish temperament characteristic of the breed. 
The rather unusual development of feather, which is in great 
favor with English breeders, is not entirely popular with 



j' ' 



"^ 




....■ 



. 




Fig. 38. — Shire mare. 



American breeders. The action of the Shire is what would 
be expected in an animal possessing the massiveness and 
inclination toward grossness which characterizes the breed. 
Compared with the Clydesdale the action is not as snappy, 
direct, or as well balanced. The breed has not become 
popular in this country, largely because of the criticisms 
made. More quality with less scale and substance, a better 



DRAFT GROUP OR TYPE 



127 



temperament and more characteristic action would make the 
breed much more popular. When crossed on lighter breeds 
the Shire imparts unusual size and substance not usually 
obtained from other breeds. 

Suffolk. — The Suffolk is a native of Suffolk County, 
England. While the breed has been introduced in America 
to some extent, it has never become popular. Information 
concerning the breed is more interesting from an authorita- 




Fig. 39.— Suffolk stallion. 



tive standpoint. The color of the Suffolk is characteristic. 
Chestnut of some shade with very little white accompanying 
it is an established breed attribute. The mane and tail 
are often light or flaxen. The breed is not typical of the 
true draft type, as it often lacks in scale and is inclined to be 
light in bone. The head is of medium size, the ears rather 
small and erect, and the nose slightly inclined to be^Roman. 
The neck is comparatively short, the body fair in depth, and 
the hindquarters only medium in development of muscle. 
The bone is clean and the legs free from feather, this being a 



128 JUDGING DRAFT HORSES 

rather popular, although a rather unimportant, feature of 
the breed. 

The action of the Suffolk ranks well, although there is 
a slight tendency to twist the hocks when moving. This 
has been largely overcome, however, through careful breed- 
ing. The temperament and disposition of the breed is 
exceedingly well developed. Specimens of the breed are 
easy to keep, and considering their weight, are capable of 
doing heavy and continuous work. They are docile, quiet, 
and well managed under a variety of conditions. The chief 
objections to the breed are lack of weight, light bone, and 
their rather soft, shelly feet. The breed has not been 
imported to any extent and consequently is not widely 
distributed in this country. Wherever used, however, they 
have become quite popular for general work on the farm. 
Wallace describes the Suffolk Punch as follows : 

"The Suffolk Punch is named from its native county, 
and from its compact and rounded form, its thick-set body, 
and short, hard, clean legs and fairly short pasterns, free from 
coarse hairs. The color is chestnut. W T hite legs or a bald 
face are very objectionable. It is said that the color was 
derived through a cross with imported Norwegian horses, 
brought, like some of the progenitors of the trotting Hackneys, 
by the early Norse invaders. The form and action of certain 
of the Norfolk hackneys of the day leave no reasonable 
grounds for doubting that; however, the Norfolk trotter and 
Suffolk Punch may now differ in size, style, and general 
appearance, they must have been intimately connected 
with one another at some period." 

Class Characteristics. — The recognized classes involved 
in the draft group or type, as exemplified in the market 
and show classes, include drafters, loggers, and chunks. 

Drafter. 1 — Draft horses are representative of the ideal 
which characterize the market and show ring. Such animals 
should be broad, deep, massive, and possess ample bone and 
muscle development with quality and refinement. They 
should stand from 15-3 to 17-2 hands high and weigh not 
under 1600 pounds. Drafters are worked in various ways 

1 See illustration, p. 114. 



DRAFT GROUP OR TYPE 



129 



but usually in pairs and four-in-hand hitches. Single and 
six-in-hand hitches are rather uncommon, especially the 
latter, except for show ring purposes. The drafter should 
be low set, compact, and smooth in finish. This class is 
characterized from the logger largely by the superior quality, 
greater symmetry, and unblemished condition which they 
should possess. Drafters are sometimes divided into light 
and heavy. 




Fig. 40. — Expresser. 

Logger. — Loggers are a complement to drafters except 
for smoothness, quality, and finish. Such animals are 
often used for rough, heavy work where general appearance, 
such as quality and finish, are not required. Loggers may 
be blemished without detracting seriously from their value, 
as they are used chiefly in lumber camps or other work where 
showy appearance is not an important attribute. 
9 



130 



JUDGING DRAFT HORSES 




DRAFT GROUP OR TYPE 



131 



Chunk. — Chunks are exemplified in animals possessing 
draft form but lacking in scale and weight. The range 
of this class is from 850 to 1500 pounds. Chunks are well 
proportioned, compact, and therefore of greater value under 
conditions where handy weight is desirable, such as rather 
rapid work in the city or work of a general nature on the 
farm. Chunks are divided into three classes: Eastern and 
export chunks stand from 15 to 16 hands high and weigh 



















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A A 


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f 










M 


1 I 


A i 




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mm 1 1 


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ggBl 


|k v . ^ 


^gggaj^g 








0§)jjp 


J 






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fipte*. 





Fig. 42. — Fire horses. 



from 1300 to 1550 pounds. The action should be elastic, 
straight, quick, and well balanced. Farm chunks are 
moderate-sized animals standing from 15 to 15-3 hands high 
and weighing from 1200 to 1400 pounds. The action 
should be quick, straight and well balanced, trotting well 
if necessary to do so. Southern chunks range in height from 
15 to 15-3 hands and weigh from 850 to 1250 pounds. They 
are usually fine in bone, possess good quality, and should 
have good action. Because of the varied sources from which 



132 JUDGING DRAFT HORSES 

they are drawn there is a plentiful supply on the market 
and, consequently, they sell for very moderate prices. 

Expresser. ■ — Expressers are draft horses which have 
draft form with a reasonable amount of coach horse finish. 
They range in height from 15-3 to 16-2 hands and weigh 
from 1200 to 1500 pounds. Such a horse must have the 
weight to carry a good load and the finish and action to 
take it at a reasonably fast rate. Expressers should there- 
fore walk and trot well, having straight, regular and well- 
balanced action with both knee and hock development and 
more than the usual flexion. 



CHAPTER VIII. 
JUDGING LIGHT HORSES. 

Classification. — Light horses are divided into four rather 
distinct groups or types which include heavy harness, light 
harness, saddle horses, and ponies. Under each of these 
groups or types are classed the various breeds and classes 
representing or conforming to the standard requirements. 
The four main types included are those recognized from the 
market and show yard standpoint. The pure-bred represen- 
tatives of these types are represented in the coach breeds, the 
American Standardbred, 1 American Saddle Horse, Thorough- 
bred Running Horse, and the Shetland, Welsh, and Hackney 
pony breeds. 

HEAVY HARNESS GROUP OR TYPE. 

The distinguishing marks of the heavy harness group or 
type are principally the form, symmetry, finish, and action. 
Unless these qualifications are possessed in all important 
details horses belonging to this group will neither show nor 
sell to advantage. Their value is fixed largely by these 
qualifications. Contrasted with the other light types of 
horses, they are smoother, closer knit, have more finish, 
symmetry, and action. The head should be medium in 
size, clearly defined, the eyes large and the forehead broad, 
thus showing great intelligence. The face should be straight, 
the muzzle large, the nostrils open, lips thin, and the angle 
of the lower jaw-bone wide. The throat-latch should be 
clean, the neck of medium length, depth, smoothly muscled, 
and set well back on clearly defined, oblique shoulders. The 

1 Bred to standard requirements. See official trotting and pacing standards, 
page 152. 

(133) 



134 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 

body should be round, the ribs well sprung, the coupling 
short, and otherwise full, smooth, and close knit in form. 
The legs should be straight, strong, the joints well defined, 
the bone hard, smooth, and dense, and the tendons should 
extend well back from the bone, thus giving a square, clean- 
cut, well-defined appearance. Viewed from any angle the 
heavy harness horse should be a model of style, smoothness 
symmetry, and action. Rough, undefined joints or other 
parts of the body so defined detract seriously from the 
value of animals belonging to this type. Quality, as indicated 
in the bone, hair, and general refining attributes, is impor- 
tant. Rotundity of form, smoothness, symmetry, general 




The coach type. 



refinement, and action with extreme flexion are the important 
attributes of this group or type. 

Quality. — The quality of the heavy harness horse is one 
of the chief attributes. Combined with smoothness and 
extreme finish it constitutes one of the real fundamentals 
in judging heavy harness horses. Without quality and the 
usually associated style and prominent carriage, animals pur- 
porting to represent this type would not only be objectionable 
but ordinarily disqualified. Representatives of the type 
should be able to appear and act in accordance with the 
highest qualifications of show ring judging. 

Temperament. — The temperament of the heavy harness 
horse should be lively and characteristic of continued display 



HEAVY HARNESS GROUP OR TYPE 



135 



of style and action. Any inclination to a lymphatic or 
sluggish temperament depicts qualities not associated or 
acceptable in the heavy harness breeds. As a whole a mere 
glance at an animal of this type should indicate a complete 
harmonious correlation in a smooth, close-knit form, high 
finish and extreme flexion of the knees and hocks in action. 
These qualities should all be directly associated or correlated 
with a strong, highly developed nervous organism. 




Fig. 44. — Action of the 



illustrating extreme flexion. 



Action. — Action in the heavy harness horse is intermediate 
in speed between the draft and light harness breeds. Extreme 
speed is not desirable. Such qualities are unassociated with 
the high knee and hock action desired. Speed and style in 
the action of the heavy harness horse are antagonistic. The 
stride should be of medium length, direct, regular, high, and 
well balanced. A continuous, regular folding and unfolding of 



136 



JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 



the legs when in action is characteristic of the desired move- 
ment in this type of horse. 

Breed Characteristics. -The heavy harness group includes 
three rather significant breeds and one other, the Cleveland 
Bay, not of special importance in this country. From the 
standpoint of market and show ring classes, this group 
or type includes four regular classes, namely: coach, park, 







T 




4 






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UtagH^ 


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• 


■v » V 


Br ^99 ' 




.^ W 




"^H Jr • 



Fui. -15.— French Coach stallion. 



cob, cab, and the runabout, which is intermediate between 
the heavy and Light harness types. 

French Coach. The French Coach breed was originally a 
Demi-sang or Half-blood. Because of this fact the breed is 
not as uniform in type as those which have been purer bred for 
a specific purpose, keeping the blood lines intact, as in all 
recognized pure breeds* The type of the French Coach is 
somewhat rangier and more upstanding than the German 
Coach. The height averages about L6 hands and the weight 



HEAVY HARNESS GROUP OR TYPE 137 

ranges from L 150 to 1 100 pounds. The color is usually solid, 
with one or more white points. Brown, dark bay, chestnut, 
and black are the predominating colors. Specimens of this 
lined are usually showy in front, although the type varies to 
u considerable extent. Some animals show too much slug- 
gishness at times for the best display of style and action. 

The body of the French Coach is longer, and has less depth 
than the German Coach. .The head is broad and of medium 
length, the cars erect, and the eyes bright and prominent, the 
general make-up of the head and neck showing considerable 
intelligence and refinement. The shoulders are usually slop- 
ing, the back reasonably short, and the underline long and 
straight. The action of the French ( loach is quite character- 
istic of the heavy harness breeds, showing considerable style 
and flexion in the execution of the gaits, although there is a 
tendency for the hock action not to correspond to that in 
front. The quality is not as well developed as in the Hack- 
ney, although it is somewhat better than in the German 
( loach. The temperament is active, although a characteristic 
not generally as regularly associated with, this breed as with 
the Hackney. 

German Coach. — The German Coach breed is a native of 
Northwestern Germany. It is bred especially in Han- 
over, Oldenburg, Schleswig-IIoJstem, and the district 
of East Friesland. Representatives of this breed have 
been variously distributed in this country as Hanoverian, 
Oldenburg, and German Coach. The breed is characterized 
by a solid color, either of bay, brown or black, with one or 
more white points, usually on the hindfeet and in the face. 
The breed averages about 10 hands high and ranges from 
1200 to 1450 pounds in weight. The body is somewhat 
larger and coarser than in the French Coach. On the whole, 
the breed possesses more scale, less quality, and not as 
characteristic action as the French Coach. Then; is an 
inclination to grossness and meatiness which is objectionable, 
especially in heavy harness horses. 

Compared with the French Coach, the breed is Jess 
rangy, having a closer knit form. The back is shorter, the 
coupling closer, and there is usually greater depth of body. 



138 



JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 



In quality the breed does not exhibit as much smoothness 
or finish as desirable. The hair and bone have an inclination 
to be coarse and the joints somewhat large and meaty. 
The temperament is very good, although too much grossness 
and sluggishness are exhibited in some specimens of the 




Fig. 46. — German Coach stallion. 



breed. Conformation with less draftiness and more refine- 
ment in the features throughout would be desirable attributes. 
The action is not as high or as flashy as in the other recognized 
coach breeds. Often not enough speed is exhibited to give 
a harmonious, pleasing, well-balanced action, which is so 
much desired. 



HEAVY HARNESS GROUP OR TYPE 



139 



Hackney. — The Hackney horse is an English product, 
and from the standpoint of style, smoothness, symmetry, 
and action is especially characteristic of the attributes and 
attainments desired in heavy harness horses. The type is 
usually associated with a prominent breast, short back, a 
long, level, broad croup, deep ribs, short legs, and an extreme 
carriage of head and neck. The body is round, close knit, well 
coupled, and usually exhibits good bone and extreme refine- 




Fig. 47. — Hackney characteristics. 



ment. The height, exclusive of ponies and intermediate 
types, ranges from 15-2 to 15-3 hands, and the weight from 
1100 to 1300 pounds. The color of the Hackney varies. 
Chestnuts, bays, and browns are the leading colors, the 
former predominating; white markings all around are quite 
characteristic. The Hackney breed is typical of the attributes 
desired in heavy harness animals, possessing the refinement, 
the smooth-turned form, unusual style and well-balanced 
hock and knee action, the former being especially developed. 



140 



JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 




HEAVY HARNESS GROUP OR TYPE 



141 



The breed as a whole is smaller but closer knit than either 
the French or German Coach. The contour and lines of 
the Hackney are well proportioned. The face is straight, 
the neck of medium length, well crested and the body and 
hindquarters deeply and smoothly muscled throughout, 
giving the smooth finish desired. The temperament is good, 
specimens of the breed being bold, active, and stylish in 
appearance. The disposition is docile, and the breed 
otherwise well mannered. The action of the Hackney is 




Fig. 49. — Red Cloud — heavy harness, trotting bred. 

characterized by extreme height and retarded speed because 
of the high action exhibited. The Hackney is regarded as 
having more of the true coach characteristics than other 
coach breed. The Hackney Stud Book does not discriminate 
between full-sized Hackneys and Ponies which are 14-2 hands 
or under in height. Many specimens of the breed are pro- 
duced by mating mares with pony stallions or vice versa, 
resulting in undersized individuals which possess extreme 
cobby characteristics. 

Cleveland Bay. — The Cleveland Bay is not a widely 
distributed breed, although deserving of consideration. 



142 



JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 




HEAVY HARNESS GROUP OR TYPE 



143 



This is the largest of the coach breeds, the height ranging 
from 16 to 16-3 hands and the weight from 1200 to 1500 
pounds. Because of the extreme size, and although classed 
as a coach breed, it is used for various kinds of work. For- 
merly the breed was used for general diligence purposes. 
Later crossing with the Thoroughbred reduced the size 
somewhat and added style and finish. The body of the 
Cleveland Bay is rather large, the shoulders sloping, the 
back short, and the body deep. The head is somewhat 
lacking in refinement and not as much quality is exhibited 




Fig. 51. — Coach horses. 



generally as is desirable. The action is not characteristic 
of heavy harness breeds but rather strong and powerful in 
execution. 

The color of the Cleveland Bay is either light or dark bay, 
as the name indicates. The legs, mane, and tail are usually 
black. White is permissible only to a very limited extent, 
there frequently being a small star in the forehead. The 
temperament is not characteristic of the typical coach breeds. 
This is indicated in the more drafty form, weight, and lack 
of style, finish, and action. The disposition of the breed is 
only fair. It is important in this country only from an 



144 



JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 




HEAVY HARNESS GROUP OR TYPE 145 

authoritive standpoint, very few specimens having been 
introduced. 

Class Characteristics. — The heavy harness group includes 
coach, park, cob, cab and runabout, the latter being inter- 
mediate between the heavy and light harness groups. 

Coach Horse. — The coach horse should have quality, 
style, smoothness, and action. The weight usually ranges 
from 1150 to 1250 pounds and the height is approximately 
16 hands. Coach horses are driven to various vehicles and 
should go about 8 miles per hour. The specific use to which 
they are put requires a lively temperament, good disposition 
and faultless manners. They are used largely in cities 
where style should be manifested, both at the walk, trot, 
and when at rest. 

Park Horse. — Park horses are classified by height. They 
should possess unusual style, symmetry, refinement and 
action as they represent the extreme show type. They are 
driven singly, in pairs, and in fours to various types of vehicles. 

Cob. — Cob horses are very close, full-made animals with 
extreme finish and high action. They should possess 
superior quality, fine, clean bone, unusual muscular develop- 
ment, and comparatively short legs. They are intermediate 
between the heavy harness and pony groups. 

Cab Horse. — Cab horses are of much the same type as 
the coach horse, many of them being the lower grades of the 
coach class. They should possess symmetry of form, good 
bone and feet, a close coupling, and unusual constitution and 
endurance. These horses are used for a cheaper trade than 
coach horses and are usually not maintained in as high 
condition. 

Runabout. — The runabout horse is intermediate between 
.the light and heavy harness groups. It should approximate 
15 hands high and have both the characteristics of the road 
horse and the park horse, the speed of the former and the 
style and action of the latter, although not to the extreme. 
The name indicates the kind of service for which the runabout 
horse is used. 



10 



146 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 



Score Card for Heavy Harness Horses. 

General Appearance — 12 Points. Perfect score. 

Height: 

Weight: 

Form: close, full made, smooth turned, symmetrical ... 4 

Quality: bone clean, dense, fine, yet indicating substance; 
tendons and joints sharply defined; hide and hair fine; 
general refinement, finish 4 

Temperament: proud, bold, stylish, disposition good, intelli- 
gent 4 

Head and Neck — 7 Points. 

Head: size and dimensions in proportion, clear-cut features, 

straight face line, wide angle in lower jaw 1 

Forehead: broad, full ... 1 

Eyes: prominent orbit, large, full, bright, clear, lid thin, even 

curvature 1 

Ears: medium size, fine, pointed, set close, carried alert . . 1 

Muzzle: fine, nostrils large, lips thin, trim, even .... 1 
Neck: long, lofty carriage, high crest, throttle well cut out, 

head well set on 2 

Forehand — 22 Points. 

Shoulders: long, oblique, smooth . 2 

Arms: short, muscular, carried well forward 1 

Forearms: broad, muscular 1 

Knees: straight, wide, deep, strongly supported .... 2 
Canons: short, broad, flat, tendons sharply defined, set well 

back 2 

Fetlocks: wide, tendons well back, straight, well supported . 2 
Pasterns: long, oblique (45 degrees), smooth, strong ... 2 

Feel: large, round, uniform, straight, slope of wall parallel to 
slope of pastern, sole concave, bars strong, frog large, elastic, 
heels wide, full, one-third height of toe, horn dense, smooth, 

dark color 6 

Legs: direction viewed from in front, perpendicular line 
dropped from the point of the shoulder should divide the 
leg and foot into two lateral halves; viewed from the side, 
a perpendicular line dropped from the tuberosity of the 
scapula should pass through the center of the elbow-joint 
and meet the ground at the center of the foot .... 4 

Body — 11 Points. 

Withers: well set up, narrow, extending well back ... 2 

Chest: wide, deep 2 

Ribs: well sprung, long, close 2 

Back: short, straight, strong, broad 2 

Loin: short, broad, strongly coupled 2 

Flank: deep, full, long, low underline 1 

Carried forward 52 



LIGHT HARNESS GROUP OR TYPE 147 

Perfect score. 

Brought forward -. 52 

Hindquarters — 32 Points. 

Hips: broad, round, smooth 2 

, Croup: long, level, round, smooth 2 

Tail: set high, well carried 2 

Thighs: full, muscular 2 

Stifles: broad, full, muscular 2 

Gaskins: broad, muscular 2 

Hocks: straight, wide, point prominent, deep, clean cut, 

smooth, well supported 6 

Canons: short, broad, flat, tendons sharply defined, set 

well back 2 

Fetlocks: wide, tendons well back, straight, well supported . 2 

Pasterns: long, oblique (50 degrees), smooth, strong ... 2 

Feet: large, round (slightly less than in front), uniform, 

straight, slope of wall parallel to slope of pastern, sole 

concave, bars strong, frog large and elastic, heels wide, 

full one-third height of toe, horn dense, smooth, dark 

color 4 

Legs: direction viewed from the rear, a perpendicular line 
dropped from the point of the buttock should divide the 
leg and foot into lateral halves; viewed from the side this 
same line should touch the point of the hock and meet the 
ground some little distance back of the heel. A perpen- 
dicular line dropped from the hip-joint should meet the 
ground near the center of the foot 4 

Action — 16 Points. 

Walk: straight, snappy, springy, proud, stylish .... 6 

Trot: in line, bold, flashy, extreme flexion of knees and hocks, 
balanced, regular 10 

100 



LIGHT HARNESS GROUP OR TYPE. 

The light harness group or type is represented by two 
rather distinct classes known as the speed or race horse, and 
the roadster. While these classes are distinctly different, 
they are both characterized by certain well-defined attributes 
or qualifications. 

Conformation. — Speed and roadster attainments in light 
harness horses are the chief requisites to be considered 
in judging these animals. These attainments are depicted 
in the height, weight, structural conformation, quality, tern- 



148 



JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 



perament, and finish. The form of the light harness 
horse should show all indications of speed and roadster 
qualifications, yet maintain the desired style, endurance 
and finish to a degree depending on the use made of the 
animal. This necessitates an animal with a more rangy, 
yet reasonably close-made form than in the heavy har- 
ness group or type. The head should be medium in 
size, broad between the eyes and clearly defined, showing 
ample intelligence, as this is very much desired in horses 




Fig. 



The light harness typ 



used for light harness purposes. The shoulders should 
be long and oblique, the back short, the underline long, 
the animal closely coupled, but with more depth of body 
in comparison to width, than in the heavy harness group. 
A close, full-made form impedes free action and the 
ability to walk and trot at well-balanced, uniform gaits. 
While the walk is an important gait, a large amount of the 
work of the light harness group is performed at the trot, 
and this gait therefore should be given chief consideration, 
except in animals which are specially characterized by the 
pacing gait. 



LIGHT HARNESS GROUP OR TYPE 149 

In contradistinction to the heavy harness group, light 
harness horses, as the name suggests, possess less weight, a 
more rangy and upstanding body, a deeper body in propor- 
tion to the width, longer and thinner muscles, more reach 
in the stride, and all-around lower going action. This 
group should be characterized by just the reverse of the 
heavy harness type, which is characterized by high action 
with a degree of flexion, depending on the particular class 
under consideration. 

Quality. — Quality is an essential characteristic in animals 
which perform under severe strain. This is particularly 
true of the light harness horse which may be subjected 
to moderate road driving or to the severest trials on the 
track. Quality is indicated by a clearly defined head, fine, 
dense bone, with no inclination to meatiness, smooth, well- 
made joints, fine, silky hair, and in general, a finish indicative 
of hard, wearing qualities. Undefined features, open, spongy 
bone, characterized by meatiness, rough, open joints and lack 
of symmetry and finish indicate just the reverse of what 
is wanted in speed and endurance requirements. Animals 
of this group should look and appear as possessing the hard, 
enduring usage which is required of them. 

Durability. — Durability is an attribute which is usually 
associated with an animal possessing the quality attainments 
formerly described. As the term indicates, every part of the 
conformation should be of such quality and so constructed 
in the blending of the finished animal that it emphasizes 
the possession of durability attributes to the very depth 
or nucleus of the structure. A strong constitution is indi- 
cated in a large, well-defined muzzle, large nostrils, large, 
bright, prominent eyes, and a broad, and unusually deep 
chest. These qualities are directly associated with dura- 
bility. 

Temperament. — The temperament of the light harness 
group should be highly developed and active, thus directly 
opposed to the temperament which characterizes the draft 
group. Hard, wearing qualities are directly associated with 
the strong nerve force exhibited in the characteristic light 
harness horse. 



150 



JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 



Breed and Class Characteristics. — The light harness 
group is represented by the American Standardbred, which 
is the nearest exponent of pure breeding, as grouped under 
the breeds in the classification of horses, and by the speed 
or race horse and roadster, as grouped under class charac- 
teristics. The former is subdivided, merely by a distinction 
in the gaits, into the trotter and pacer. 




Fig. 54. — Standardbred mare. 

American Standardbred. — The American Standardbred, as 
an exponent of pure breeding, 1 is represented by the trotter 
and pacer. This subdivision in conjunction with the top 
crossing with the Thoroughbred, wdiich has been introduced 
in the Standardbred, is responsible for the wide variation 
which exists in the type. The color is not uniform, a large 
number of colors prevailing in various allied shades, bay 
being the predominating color. The height ranges from 

1 See Official Trotting and Pacing Standard, page 152. 



LIGHT HARNESS GROUP OR TYPE 



151 



15-1 to 16 hands, and the weight from 800 to 1100 pounds 
or over in animals possessing the smoother road horse 
characteristics, although there are many smaller types 
possessing more or less value, depending on the use made of 
the animal. In the best development of this breed, specimens 
possess good quality, conformation, and refinement. Such 
specimens should possess clean, well-defined heads, a neck 




Fig. 55. — Morgan horse. 



of medium length, refined, and moderately arched, sloping, 
well-made shoulders, a strong back, broad loin, muscular 
croup, strong coupling, clean, well-defined bone, and general 
symmetry and finish. 

Horses of this latter stamp are more largely used for road 
purposes, as defined under the roadster class. Top crossing 
with Standardbred stallions of this stamp is practised widely 

1 The U. S. Government has important work under way with this horse 
at Middlebury, Vermont. 



152 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 

in breeding grade roadster horses possessing the quality, 
conformation, endurance, and finish of the smoother made 
representatives of the breed. The style and temperament 
of such animals is usually good, possessing sufficient spirit 
and snap to render them most acceptable for light harness 
service, as equipped for road work. Taken as a whole, the 
Standardbred, from the breed standpoint, varies greatly in 
type, size, color, and performance. This of necessity requires 
a special treatise on the various types represented by the 
general type to understand the breed thoroughly. 

Official Standard of the American Trotting Register Asso- 
ciation — Trotting Standard. — When an animal meets these 
requirements and is duly registered it shall be accepted 
as a Standardbred trotter : 

1. The progeny of a registered standard trotting horse 
and a registered standard trotting mare. 

2. A stallion sired by a registered standard trotting horse, 
provided his dam and grand dam were sired by registered 
standard trotting horses, and he himself has a trotting 
record of 2:30 and is the sire of three trotters with records 
of 2 :30 from different mares. 

3. A mare whose sire is a registered standard trotting 
horse, and whose dam and grand dam were sired by regis- 
tered standard trotting horses, provided she herself has a 
trotting record of 2:30 or is the dam of one trotter with a 
record of 2:30. 

4. A mare sired by a registered standard trotting horse, 
provided she is the dam of two trotters with records of 2 :30. 

5. A mare sired by a registered standard trotting horse, 
provided her first, second, and third dams are each sired by 
a registered standard trotting horse. 

Pacing Standard. — When an animal meets these require- 
ments and is duly registered, it shall be accepted as a 
Standardbred pacer : 

1. The progeny of a registered standard pacing horse and 
a registered standard pacing mare. 

2. A stallion sired by a registered standard pacing horse, 
provided his dam and grand dam were sired by registered 
standard pacing horses, and he himself has a pacing record 



LIGHT HARNESS GROUP OR TYPE 153 

of 2:25, and is the sire of three pacers with records of 2:25, 
from different mares. 

3. A mare whose sire is a registered standard pacing horse 
and whose dam and grand dam were sired by registered 
standard pacing horses, provided she herself has a pacing 
record of 2 :25, or is the dam of one pacer with a record of 2 :25. 

4. A mare sired by a registered standard pacing horse, 
provided she is the dam of two pacers with records of 2 :25. 

5. A mare sired by a registered standard pacing horse, 
provided her first, second, and third dams are each sired by 
a registered standard pacing horse. 

6. The progeny of a registered standard trotting horse 
out of a registered standard pacing mare, or a registered 
standard pacing horse out of a registered standard trotting 
mare. 

Class Characteristics. — The light harness type is repre- 
sented by the speed or race horse and the roadster, differing 
in the following attributes: 

Speed or Race Horse. — The speed or race horse has two 
distinct gaits, namely, the trot and pace, the former being 
a diagonal two-beat gait and the latter a lateral two-beat 
gait. The chief distinction is in the action. However, 
there are certain points in the conformation which makes the 
speed horse naturally trot or pace. By the use of mechanical 
appliances or under proper training otherwise, a trotter may 
be trained to pace or vice versa. The speed horse should 
have ample enduring qualities for the severest test on the 
race course. Speed is the first requirement and, consequently, 
conformation is not given the usual amount of consideration. 
While a great many speed horses have the conformation of the 
smoother road horse type, it is only by direct association and 
natural inclination that such animals become noted speed 
performers. Pacers, as distinguished from trotters, are fre- 
quently prominent at the withers, usually higher and more 
sloping in the croup, in general showing a less symmetrical 
development than the trotting animal. 

Roadster. — The roadster animal should possess a smooth, 
well-finished conformation with the approved symmetry and 
finish characteristic of the smooth-turned Standardbred indi- 



154 



JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 




LIGHT HARXESS GROUP OR TYPE 



155 



vidual. Specimens should possess in addition regular, well- 
balanced action for drawing a light vehicle at a rapid rate 
when necessary. Pacers are not usually recognized as the 
most acceptable in this class. They require a smooth surface 
for their best performance, and because of this they are not 
widely adapted to general road purposes. 




Fig. 57. — Roadster team. 
Score Card for Light Harness Horses. 

Perfect score. 

General Appearanxe — 12 Points. 
Height: 
Weight: 

Form: symmetrical, smooth, stylish 4 

Quality: bone clean, firm, and indicating sufficient substance; 

tendons defined; hair and skin fine 4 

Temperament: active, kind disposition 4 

Head and Xeck — 6 Points. 

Head: lean, straight 1 

Muzzle: fine, nostrils large; lips thin, even, teeth sound . 1 

Eyes: full, bright, clear, large . 1 

Forehead: broad, full 1 

Ears: medium size, pointed, well carried, and not far apart 1 

Xeck: muscled; crest high; throat-latch, fine; windpipe large 1 



Carried forward 



1^ 



156 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 

Perfect score. 

Brought forward 18 

Forehand — 23 Points. 

Shoulders: Jong, smooth with muscle, oblique, extending 

into back 2 

Arms: short, thrown forward 1 

Forearms: muscled, long, wide 2 

Knees: clean, wide, straight, deep, strongly supported . 2 

Canons: short, wide; sinews, large, set back 2 

Fetlocks: wide, straight 1 

Pasterns: strong, angle with ground 45 degrees .... 3 
Feet: medium, even size, straight; horn dense; frog large, 

elastic; bars strong; sole concave; heel wide .... 6 
Legs: viewed in front, a perpendicular line from the point of 
the shoulder should fall upon the center of the knee, canon, 
pastern, and foot. From the side, a perpendicular line 
dropping from the center of the elbow-joint should meet 
the ground at the center of the foot, fall upon the center 
of the knee and pastern joints and back of hoof. . . 4 
Body — 10 Points. 

Withers: muscled and well finished at top 1 

Chest: deep, low, large girth 2 

Rihs: long, sprung, close 2 

Back: straight, short, broad, muscled 2 

Loin: wide, short, thick 2 

Underline: long; flank let down 1 

Hindquarters — 29 Points. 

Hips: smooth, wide, level 2 

Croup: long, wide, muscular 2 

Tail: attached high, well carried 1 

Thighs: long, muscular, spread, open angled 2 

Quarters: heavily muscled, deep 2 

Gaskin or Lower Thighs: long, wide, muscular .... 2 

Hocks: clearly denned, wide, straight 5 

Canons: short, wide ; sinews, large, set back ...... 2 

Fetlocks: wide, straight 1 

Pasterns: strong, sloping 2 

Feet: medium, even size; straight; horn dense, frog large, 

elastic; bars strong; sole concave; heel wide, high ... 4 
Legs: viewed from behind; a perpendicular line from the 
point of the bottock should fall upon the center of the 
hock, canon, pastern, and foot. From the side, a perpen- 
dicular line from the hip joint should fall upon the center 
of the foot and divide the gaskin in the middle; and a per- 
pendicular line from the point of the buttock should run 
parallel with the line of the canon 4 

Action — 20 Points. 

Walk: elastic, quick, balanced 5 

Trot: rapid, straight, regular, moderately high .... 15 

Total . . 100 



SADDLE GROUP OR TYPE 



157 



SADDLE GROUP OR TYPE. 

The saddle group or type is represented from the pure- 
bred standpoint in the American Saddle Horse and the 
Thoroughbred running horse. The group is further exem- 
plified in the following classes, which include the combination 
horse, possessing both light harness and saddle attributes, 




Fig. 58. — The saddle type. 



the walk-trot-canter horse, the gaited horse, the hunter, 
cavalry, and race horse or runner. 

American Saddle Horse. — The American Saddle Horse is 
an American product, as the name suggests. It is the result 
of using Thoroughbred blood with mares which had the 
inclination to amble, this forming the foundation lor the 
saddle horse gaits. The general form of the saddle horse does 
not differ materially from the Standardised roadster, possess- 
ing the superior, close-knit conformation. The height of the 



158 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 

American Saddle Horse varies on the average from 15-1 to 
15-3 hands, and ranges in weight from 950 to 1050 pounds. 
Specimens of the well-bred saddle horse usually exhibit ex- 
treme style, the body being very close and neatly turned. 
The shoulders and pasterns should be oblique, yet strong 
enough to endure the work for which they are used. The 
predominating colors are bay, brown, chestnut, and black, 
usually being marked with one or more white points. The 
best types of the American Saddle Horse are exemplified in 
beauty, symmetry, and finish. They are well proportioned, 
the lines clearly defined, the countenance intelligent, and 
the head and neck usually possessing a most characteristic, 
lofty, graceful, carriage, or position. The especially marked 
carriage of the head and neck, the sloping shoulders and 
pasterns, the smooth, round-turned body and the long, 
level croup with high set and gracefully carried tail are char- 
acteristics which are not only desired but usually possessed 
in superior specimens of the breed. The American Saddle 
Horse is typified by five characteristic gaits, namely : the walk, 
trot, canter, rack and the running walk, fox trot, or slow pace. 

The American Saddle Horse Association defines the 
American Saddle Horse from the show ring standpoint in 
the following: The saddle horse must be sound, of good 
conformation, substance, finish, style, and shown without 
artificial appliances, and up to carrying at least one hundred 
and sixty (160) pounds. 

The three-gaited horse should go plain, walk briskly, and 
with speed equal to four (4) miles an hour; canter reasonably, 
high and gentle, trot steady, straight, and true; action enough 
to be attractive; well balanced, and with speed equal to 
twelve (12) miles an hour. 

Added to the foregoing the five-gaited horse should go 
running walk, fox trot or slow pace, smoothly and equal 
to six (6) miles an hour; rack easily without being forced, 
with speed equal to twelve (12) miles an hour. Must stand 
quietly, back readily, and lead with either foot in a canter 
from a halt. (Not required or desired to change lead in 
action.) 

High rate of speed and racing is forbidden. 



SADDLE GROUP OR TYPE 



159 



High school gaits are not saddle gaits. It is understood 
that an animal which has been educated in high school may 
inadvertently show a step or two in this school when changing 
gait. Such evidence is not to disqualify a horse, though it is 
objectionable, but any intentional exhibition of high school 
is prohibited and shall disqualify an entry. 

The three-gaited horse should show the three distinct 
gaits: walk, trot, and canter. 




Fig. 



Thoroughbred stallion. 



Thoroughbred. — The Thoroughbred horse is derived from 
the amalgamation of the Arabian Barb and Turkish Blood 
with the lighter English-bred horses. From this union has 
been developed a breed of unusual speed and endurance. 
The acme of perfection in the Thoroughbred horse is the 
attainment of speed at the run. In gaining this one special 
attribute the type is often unsymmetrical or at least not as 
pleasing in its lines as the roadster type of Standardised or 
the American Saddle Horse. The breed is characterized 
by an energetic, racy temperament or nerve force, which 



160 



JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 



is exemplified in the extreme speed attained by specimens 
of the breed. Although unusually refined and possessing 
striking quality characteristics, the Thoroughbred is rangy, 
with a long body, long legs, and comparatively long neck. 
These are all conducive to a long stride, which is so necessary 
in the running horse. The best representatives of the breed 




Fig. 60. — Combination horse. 



average about 15-2 hands high and range from 900 to 1050 
pounds. 

The color is bay, chestnut, brown, black, and gray with 
white markings. The former colors are the most character- 
istic, blacks and grays not being in demand. Compared 
with the Standardbred trotter and pacer, the Thoroughbred 
is more rangy, having more sloping pasterns, finer bone, 
sometimes extreme and smaller feet of unusually fine texture. 
The withers are usually high, the shoulders are rather long 



SADDLE GROUP OR TYPE 



161 



and sloping, and the head carried forward rather than 
upward. The hindquarters are long, strongly muscled, and 
the gaskins broad, with a strong junction at the hock. 
Because of the special purpose for which the Thoroughbred 
has been developed, it is used almost solely for breeding and 
racing purposes in its pure-bred form, the temperament being 




Fig. 61. — Walk-trot-canter saddle mare. 



too nervous and erratic for general use. Pure specimens of 
the breed are used otherwise for crossing to obtain various 
classes of horses, such as the walk-trot-canter, hunter, and 
cavalry horse. 

Combination Horse. — The combination horse possesses 

both saddle and light harness attainments. However, such 

animals are often better naturally developed or trained for 

one purpose than the other. The combination horse is 

11 



162 



JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 



more representative of the saddle type, but is customarily 
shown in harness first. It should possess considerable 
smoothness, style and finish, although these attributes are 
not usually attained to an extreme. The combination horse 
is usually distinguished from the saddle horse by possessing 
more of the harness-form attainments, principally in the 



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Fig. 62. — Gaited saddle stallion. 



speed at the trot. Combination horses which possess, 
either naturally or by training, an equal balance in harness 
and saddle requirements possess unusual value, both from the 
market and show ring standpoint. 

Walk-trot-canter Horse. — The walk-trot-canter horse re- 
ceives its name from the three gaits which it possesses. 
It is divided into two types which are derivatives of the 
American or Saddle-bred and the English or Thoroughbred 



SADDLE GROUP OR TYPE 163 

horses. The American or Saddle-bred type is a complement 
to the gaited saddle horse, except that it is trained only 
to go the three gaits. It is customary also to dock and pull 
the manes. The Thoroughbred type is represented in the 
better shaped Thoroughbreds which possess the three dis- 
tinctive gaits, the walk, trot, and canter, in a distinctive form. 




Fig. 63. — Five-gaited saddler. 

This type of three-gaited horse is usually undocked and the 
mane hogged. 

Gaited Saddle Horse. — The gaited saddle horse is exem- 
plified in the five-gait attainments, namely: the walk, trot, 
canter, rack and running walk, fox trot or slow pace. Many 
of the gaited saddle horses are of pure-bred saddle-horse 
origin, although those of grade origin having the standard 
five-gait requirements are so classified. 



164 



JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 



Hunter Horse. — The hunter horse, as the name suggests, 
should possess saddle requirements, capacity and endurance, 
for carrying weight and jumping easily and safely. He 
should possess a good disposition, ample quality, and refine- 
ment, and a strong, lively, nervous temperament. Intelligence 




Fig. 64. — Light-weight hunter. 



is important, because of the varied attainments which such 
an animal must possess. Hunters are classified as light, 
medium, and heavy, on a basis of the weight which they 
are capable of carrying safely. This ranges from 135 to 
190 pounds or over. They should possess capacity for 
carrying the rider safely and for long, continuous cross- 
country runs over the various obstacles which are usually 
encountered. 

Cavalry. — Cavalry horses are used, as the name suggests, 
for army purposes. While many of them are range bred 



SADDLE GROUP OR TYPE 



165 



and do not possess a desirable conformation, there are certain 
standard qualifications set forth by the Quartermaster- 
General of the war department. Specimens of this class 
should be geldings of good color, from four to eight years 
old, stand from 15 to 15-3 hands high, and weigh from 950 
to 1100 pounds. They should be sound, good in quality, 




Fig. 65. — Hunter, Irish Rose. 

possess a docile disposition, be well broken to saddle, have 
a well-balanced action, and be free from blemish or other 
defects. 

Specifications for Cavalry Horses, Prepared under Direction 
of the Quartermaster-General. 

The cavalry horse must be sound, well bred, of a superior class, 
and have quality; gentle and of a kind disposition; thoroughly broken 
to the saddle, with light and elastic mouth, easy gaits, and free and 
prompt action at the walk, trot, and gallop; free from vicious habits, 
without material blemish or defect; and otherwise to conform to the 
following description : 

A gelding of uniform and hardy color, in good condition; from four 
to eight years old; weighing from 950 to 1100 pounds, depending on 
height, which should be from 15 to 15-3 hands. 



166 



JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 



Head. — Small and well set on neck; with ears small, thin, neat and 
erect; forehead broad and full; eyes large, prominent, and mild, with 
well-developed brow and fine eyelid; vision perfect in every respect; 
muzzle small and fine; month deep; lips thin and firmly compressed; 
nostrils large and fine, and branches of underjaw (adjoining neck) 
wide apart. 

Neck. — Light, moderately long, and tapering toward the head, with 
crest firm and longer than underside; mane fine and intact. 

Withers. — Elevated, not unduly fine, well developed and muscled. 

Shoulders. — Long, oblique, and well muscled. 

Chest. — Full, very deep, moderately broad, and plump in front. 




Fig. 66. — High jumper. 



Forelegs. — Vertical, and properly placed; with elbow large, long, 
prominent, and clear of chest; forearm large at the elbow, long and 
heavily muscled. 

Knees. — Neatly outlined, large, prominent, wide in front, well 
situated, and well directed. 

Back. — Short, straight, and well muscled. 

Loins.- — Broad, straight, very short, and muscular. 

Barrel. — Large, increasing in size toward the flanks, with ribs well 
arched and definitely separated. 

Hindquarters. — Wide, thick, very long, full, heavily muscled, rounded 
externally, and well directed. 

Tail. — Fine and intact, well carried and firm. 



SADDLE GROUP OR TYPE 



167 



Hocks.— Neatly outlined, lean, large, wide from front to rear, well 
situated, and well directed. 

Limbs. — From knees and hocks downward vertical, short, wide 
laterally, with tendons and ligaments standing well out from bone 
and distinctly defined. 

Pasterns. — Strong medium length, not too oblique, and well directed. 

Feet. — Medium size, circular in shape, sound; with horn dark, smooth, 
and of fine texture; sole moderately concave, and frog well developed, 
sound, firm, large, elastic, and healthy. 

Each horse will be subjected to a rigid inspection, and any animal 
that does not meet the above requirements should be rejected. 




Fig. 67. — Cavalry remount. 

Running Horse. — The race horse is exemplified by the 
extreme speed which it is able to obtain at its natural 
gait, which is the gallop. It should have long reach 
and unusual stamina and endurance. The race type is an 
exponent of the Thoroughbred formerly described, gaining 
prominence either in the pure-bred or grade form. The 
attributes and attainments specified under the Thorough- 



168 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 

bred are the same as those expected in the race-horse class. 
Speed at the run is the one requirement which is either in 
the straight running race or the steeplechase course. 

Score Card for Saddle Horses. 

Perfect score. 

General Appearance — 12 Points. 
Height: 
Weight: 

Form: close but not full made, deep but not broad, symmet- 
rical 4 

Quality: bone clean, dense, fine, yet indicating substance, 
tendons and joints sharply defined, hide and hair fine, 

general refinement, finish 4 

Temperament: active, disposition good, intelligent ... 4 

Head and Neck — 8 Points. 

Head: size and dimensions in proportion, clear-cut features, 

straight face line, wide angle in lower jaw 1 

Forehead: broad, full . 1 

Eyes: prominent orbit, large, full, bright, clear, lid thin, even 

curvature . 1 

Ears: medium size, pointed, set close, carried alert ... 1 

Muzzle: fine, nostrils large, lips thin, trim, even .... 1 

Neck: long, supple, well crested, not carried too high, throttle 

well cut out, head well set on 3 

Forehand — 22 Points. 

Shoulders: very long, sloping yet muscular 3 

Arms: short, muscular, carried well forward 1 

Forearms: long, broad, muscular '. 1 

Knees: straight, wide, deep, strongly supported .... 2 

Canons: short, broad, flat, tendons sharply defined, set well 

back 2 

Fetlocks: wide, tendons well back, straight, well supported . 2 
Pasterns: long, oblique (45 degrees), smooth, strong ... 2 

Feet: large, round, uniform, straight, slope of wall parallel 
to slope of pastern, sole concave, bars strong, frog large, 
elastic, heels wide, full, one-third height of toe, horn dense, 

smooth, dark color 5 

Legs: direction viewed from in front, perpendicular line 
dropped from the point of the shoulder should divide the leg 
and foot into two lateral halves ; viewed from the side, a per- 
pendicular line dropped from the tuberosity of the scapula 
should pass through the center of the elbow-joint and meet 

the ground at the center of the foot 4 

Body — 12 Points. 

Withers: high, muscular, well finished at top, extending well 

into back 3 

Chest: medium width, deep 2 

Ribs: well sprung, long, close . 2 

Back: short, straight, strong, broad 2 

Loin: short, broad, muscular, strongly coupled .... 2 
Flank: deep, full, long, low underline 1 

Carried forward . 54 



PONY GROUP OR TYPE 169 

Perfect score. 

Brought forward 54 

Hindquarters — 31 Points. 9 

Hips: broad, round, smooth * 

Croup: long, level, round, smooth £ 

Tatf; set high, well carried ^ 

Thighs: full, muscular • ~ 

Stijtes: broad, full, muscular * 

Gaskins: broad, muscular ,"','' +.' 

#ocfcs: straight, wide, point prominent, deep, clean cut, 

smooth, well supported . . • ■ ■ , v " j ' ... ' ,i 

Canons: short, broad, flat, tendons sharply defined, set well 

FetlTcks: wide, tendons well back, straight, well supported 2 

Pasterns: long, oblique (50 degrees), smooth, strong . . . 

Feet: large, round (slightly less than in front), uniform, 

straight, slope of wall parallel to slope of pastern, sole 

concave, bars strong, frog large and elastic, heels wide, 

full, one-third height of toe, horn dense, smooth, dark 

color i- i Y 

Lens- direction, viewed from the rear a perpendicular line 
dropped from the point of the buttock should divide the 
leg and foot into lateral halves; viewed from the side this 
same line should touch the point of the hock and meet 
the ground some little distance back of the heel. A per- 
pendicular line dropped from the hip-joint should meet 

the ground near the center of the foot 

Action — 15 Points. K 

Walk: rapid, flat-footed, in line . ■ ■ • • ■ , : , ■ ■ 
Trot: free, springy, square, going well off hocks, not extreme 

knee fold ■ ■ ■ • ' ■ • r 

Canter: slow, collected, either lead, no cross canter • ■ • ° 

Total 10 ° 



PONY GROUP OR TYPE. 

The pony group or type is exemplified in the Shetland, 
Welsh, and Hackney, from the pure-bred standpoint, the 
latter being an undersized Hackney formerly described under 
the heavy harness group. From the standpoint of class 
attainments the type is represented by the Polo Pony, 
Shetland (under 46 inches), and the 11-2 to 14-2 hand pony. 

.Shetland.— The Shetland pony in all respects possesses 
the type and conformation of a small draft horse. The 
Shetland is the smallest of the breeds of horses. The 
American Shetland Pony Club requires that specimens of 
the breed come under 46 inches in order to be eligible lor 



170 



JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 



registration. The breed is a native of the Shetland Islands 
where they are used frequently to carry rather heavy loads. 
They are used in this country largely for pleasure purposes, 
chiefly among children. The Shetland is docile, rather 
lymphatic in temperament, although occasionally ill natured. 




Fig. 68. — Shetland stallion. 



The colors vary considerably, browns, blacks, bays, chestnuts, 
and often odd and irregular colors characterize the breed. 
The solid colors are most preferable among the breeders, 
although broken-colored ponies find ready sale, chiefly for 
the use of children. Action is not well developed as a 
usual thing. The American type of pony is less blocky and 
more refined than the type accepted in its native home. 



PONY GROUP OR TYPE 171 

Score Card for Shetland Ponies. 

Perfect score. 

Constitution: Constitution indicated by general healthy appear- 
ance, perfect respiration, brightness of eye 10 

Size: Ponies over four years old, 42 inches and under in height, 
two points to be deducted for every inch over 42 inches up to 46 
inches, fractional portions to count as full inches 25 

Head: Head symmetrical, rather small and fine, wide between 
eyes, ears short and erect 10 

Body: Barrel well rounded, back short and level, deep chest, good 
breast, compact " pony build" 10 

Legs: Legs muscular, flat-boned, hindleg not cow-hocked or too 25 
crooked 

Mane and Tail: Foretop, mane and tail heavy 10 

Feet: Good " 10 

Total 100 




Fig. 69.— Welsh stallion. 



Welsh Ponies. — Welsh ponies are descended from ponies 
which are native of the Welsh mountains in Wales. The 
type is quite variable, specimens of the breed having been 



172 



JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 



improved by the use of Arab and Thoroughbred blood. 
The Welsh Pony and Cob Society divides the breed into four 
types. The first consideration is height, including specimens 
ranging 12-2 hands or under, 12-2 to 13-2 hands, 13-2 to 14-2 
hands, and 14-2 to 15-2 hands. The first type resembles 
a small Arabian horse, the second being more of the cob type, 




Fig. 70. — Hackney pony stallion. 



while the third comes in the cob class. Those conforming to 
the latter height are suited to infantry and cavalry service. 
Welsh ponies possess more style and action than the Shet- 
land, the larger, better developed specimens making good 
saddle or harness horses. The color ranges quite widely, 
bays, browns, chestnuts, grays, and roans characterizing the 
breed. Many of these ponies have good hock and knee action 
and unusual speed and stamina for a pony. However, there 
are very many ill-developed specimens, little care and atten- 



PONY GROUP OR TYPE 



m 



tion having been given to their breeding, especially under 
native conditions. 

Hackney. — The Hackney pony is merely an undersized 
Hackney horse conforming to pony requirements with a 
maximum height of 58 inches or 14-2 hands. All of the breed 
qualities, as formerly described, should be exhibited in the 
Hackney pony. 




Fig. 71. — Polo pony. 



Class Characteristics. — The principal characteristics of 
ponies are described under the following: 

Polo Ponies. — The Polo pony, although referred to some- 
time as a breed, does not possess true breed qualifications. 
The maximum height allowed by the American Polo Pony 
Association is 14-2 hands. The Polo pony may be a deriva- 
tive of small Thoroughbreds, western ponies, or half-breds. 
They are of a hunter type, must possess a good disposition, 
a lively temperament, good quality and endurance in order 



174 



JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 



to meet the requirements of the game. Endurance and 
intelligence are associated qualities which are very important 
in the most typical representatives of the class. 




Fig. 72. — Pony turnout. 




Fig. 73. — Thirteen-hand Hackney ponies. 

Ponies, 46 Inches or Under. — Ponies conforming to this 
requirement are largely Shetland and Welsh ponies and 
their derivatives. All of the individual requirements for- 
merly described under Shetland and Welsh ponies should 
characterize the class. 



JUDGING BREEDING CLASSES 175 

Ponies between 11-2 Hands and 14-2 Hands. — This is a class 
of ponies of heavy harness or saddle-horse breeding with 
miniature size. They are used principally for children for 
purposes where the Shetland and Welsh do not conform well 
to the requirements. Good solid colors are most desirable, 
having in this respect more of the qualifications of the mature 
horse and less of the Shetland pony color attributes. 

JUDGING BREEDING CLASSES. 1 

In judging breeding classes, there are certain factors of 
special significance not considered under the requisites of 
draft and light-horse attributes. These problems involve 
conformation, temperament, sex characteristics, and the 
factors of special significance in judging young stock. 

Breeding Attributes. — The judging of horses for breeding 
purposes is not radically different from judging such animals 
from a strictly draft or light-horse standpoint, barring 
reproductive characteristics. The principal factors to con- 
sider, aside from those already discussed, are healthfulness, 
constitution, and breeding conformation. Temperament is 
important. Special emphasis should always be given to 
the healthfulness, constitution, and form in judging breeding 
classes. The type of animal which will make a durable and 
otherwise satisfactory draft or light horse will not always 
be a satisfactory breeder. The draft horse proper should 
be compact in form, short, and closely coupled. Such an 
animal would not of necessity make a strong, vigorous 
breeder, although these characteristics are all important. 
Capacity should be closely associated with these points. 

The breeding animal should be long in the body, deep, 
broad and roomy. While compactness or fulness of form is 
highly desirable, this should not be obtained at the expense of 
breeding capacity. Breeding requisites are in all essential 
factors the same as draft form. It is of special importance, 
however, that the larger, more capacious form be associated 
with a strong constitution, and a large, strong, fine-qualitied 

1 Applicable to draft and light horses. 



176 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 

bone. These two factors should be closely associated, as the 
future and continuous usefulness of the breeding animal are 
of primary importance. Quality and constitution or vigor 
should, therefore, be given special attention. 

Quality. — The significance of quality and its influence 
on the individual is only a. mere part of its manifestation as 
compared to its relation to the breeding animal. This is 
especially true in the horse where enduring qualities in a 
large measure determine the value in its special field of work 
and reproduction. The horse, above all animals is expected 
to show, along with other necessary attributes, an extreme 
degree of quality and general refinement. The degree of 
manifestation of necessity varies, depending upon the type 
of the animal and its specialized use. However, in the horse, 
quality above all considerations should be plainly in evidence. 
The work of the horse is based on some form of locomotion. 
No matter what the particular phase of use may be, quality 
is necessary, with other attributes, to endow the animal 
with the maximum amount of durability. While the attain- 
ment of this particular attribute should not overshadow 
either scale or substance, it must stand out boldly, yet be 
properly associated with the other elements of the mechanism. 
A thick, meaty, spongy-boned horse is not only objectionable 
in the individual, but the transmission of such characteristics 
to the offspring is doubly so. An animal so characterized 
can neither be a satisfactory breeder nor supply stock suitable 
for breeding, market, or show ring demands. 

Conformation. — The conformation in the male and female 
vary to a noticeable degree. While on the whole the general 
form is just the same, there are certain characteristics which 
endow the male and female, respectively, with masculine and 
feminine attributes upon which the reproduction of highly 
developed individuals depend. The stallion should be bold 
and fearless in appearance, strong in the crest and through 
the shoulders and chest, yet not to the extent of rendering 
the individual unsymmetrical from any viewpoint. It 
should be characterized with all attainments significant of 
prepotency signifying the regular transmission of individually 
possessed qualities to the offspring. 



JUDGING BREEDING CLASSES 177 

The female should likewise possess the qualities indicative 
of strongly endowed maternal functions. The head and 
neck should be lighter and more feminine in appearance than 
in the male. The shoulders should be lighter and more 
harmoniously developed with the other body regions. As 
with all breeding animals, the body and hindquarters should 
be more strongly developed than the head, neck, and 
forehand. In the stallion this is exhibited in the heavier, 
coarser head, larger, thicker neck, heavier crest, shoulders, 
and chest. In contradistinction, the mare is less prominent 
in the development through this region and comparatively 
more so in the body and hindquarters. On the whole, the 
stallion should be more compact or close knit, this depend- 
ing on the type, the mare having a more open conforma- 
tion, which is a natural phenomenon in all well-developed 
breeding females. 

Temperament. — The temperament of individual animals 
varies greatly. However, it is necessary that breeding 
animals have a uniform, active temperament characteristic 
of the various types to which they belong. Horses, espe- 
cially, should have an even, uniform temperament and a 
lively, docile disposition. Usually the high-strung, easily 
excited animal is lacking in nerve force or capacity. This is 
detrimental to a breeding animal, as it not only detracts 
from the value of the individual but such characteristics 
are usually transmitted to the offspring in a like or greater 
degree. 

Compared with the light horse, the draft horse is naturally 
somewhat more lymphatic in temperament. A light horse, 
which performs its work at a light vehicle, is supposed to 
show more life, or spirit, than the heavier type of animal. 
The temperament of any animal should be keen and active, 
yet it should not be unduly emphasized at the expense of 
the usefulness or purpose for which an animal is bred. The 
draft horse should show all desirable temperamental charac- 
teristics, yet in a modified degree as compared with the light 
horse. The draft animal which exhibits the same traits as 
a Standardbred or Thoroughbred would not be considered as 
thoroughlv conforming to draft-horse characteristics. There 
12 



178 



JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 



should be an exhibition of temperament, however, in con- 
formity with type characteristics. 

Sex Characteristics. — The primary differences between 
the stallion and the mare are those which relate to size, 
proportion, compactness, and sex characteristics. The 
stallion should be thoroughly masculine without any indica- 
tions of femininity in the form, structure, or otherwise. 
The head should be large and while characterized by quality 




Fig. 74. — Percheron stallion, showing the desired masculine qualities. 



and clearness of outline, it should show without question 
the masculine characteristics. The neck should be long, 
broad, deep, and heavily muscled. The crest should also be 
well developed, any lack of development indicating weak 
constitution and a lack of prepotency. The body should 
portray every factor which characterizes a strong, vigorous 
individual. It should be in conformity with the develop- 
ment of the head, neck, and all other parts. The animal 



JUDGING BREEDING CLASSES 



179 



should show a large, strong bone, deep muscling, and a 
compact, massive form throughout. The hindquarters should 
likewise be long, deep, and prominently developed. The 
first impression of the stallion should be that of boldness 
and strength, combined with symmetry of form, quality, 
constitution, and prepotency. 

The major difference between the stallion and the mare is 
the size and the characteristics which relate to sex differences. 




Fig. 75. — Percheron brood mare, showing femininity and breeding capacity. 

The form of the mare should in general be the same as that 
of the stallion, differing in the fineness of the features and 
the feminine qualities exhibited. While the mare should 
be strongly muscled, there should not be the same degree of 
massiveness as found in the stallion. The head should 
be large, broad, clear cut in outline, and have the feminine 
characteristics clearly portrayed. The neck should be 
relatively longer than in the stallion, while there should not 



ISO 



JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 



be any undue indication of crest development. The body 
proper should be long, capacious, and deeply muscled, as 
such characteristics are indicative of maternal qualities. 
The bone should be large, clean and fine, yet the same 
degree of compactness should not be exhibited as in the 
stallion. Otherwise, the characteristics of the male and 
female are the same. The draft characteristics should be 
clearly in evidence in both male and female. 




Fig. 76. — Young colts with an outcome. Indicated in the large bone, open, 
growthy frame, and general breedy appearance. 



Colts and Fillies. — In judging colts and fillies there is 
always a certain amount of outcome or development which 
must be taken into consideration. While all animals must 
be judged in the show ring according to their immediate 
condition, yet in selecting for future breeding purposes, 
the final outcome must be given consideration. Usually 



JUDGING BREEDING CLASSES 181 

the large, strong-boned colt or filly does not make the most 
attractive appearance, yet such animals seldom fail to grow 
into the most valuable matured specimens. The sleek- 
bodied animal presenting the round, smooth, plump form 
is likely to catch the eye of the uninitiated, yet an animal 
of this type will rarely grow into a large, capacious breeder, 
or a strong, vigorous, market animal. 

If the fundamental principles of animal development have 
been completely mastered, it will have been learned that the 
animal makes growth and development on the bony frame- 
work available for this purpose. If there is not sufficient 
surface for the animal to expand or grow it cannot possibly 
develop into a large, useful animal. The young animal 
which is characterized by a large framework possessing 
quality and other requisites will develop to the maximum 
degree of efficiency. It is impossible for the small-boned 
colt or filly to make development in a normal manner. 
It is the universal law of growth that the size or weight 
attained is dependent on the development of the bone and 
the amount of surface exposed for the reception of the 
muscles and other elements entering into the animal form 
or make-up. 



CHAPTER IX. 
JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES. 

JACKS AND JENNETS. 

Structure. — The general structure of the domestic ass is 
very much like the horse, although there are some features 
quite different. The essential differences are the lack of 
symmetry, quality, and finish. Otherwise, with a few 
exceptions, the qualifications are the same and the method 
of judging is identical. The head of the ass is usually large 
and often not well proportioned with the other parts of the 
body. The ears are large, long, and somewhat coarse. The 
neck is medium in length, deep, and does not usually possess 
a crest. 

The body is moderately compact, deep, and reasonably 
smooth in outline. The ass, as a whole, does not possess 
the massiveness of the draft type of horse. Comparing it 
with the horse, it is narrower and lighter in the body, and 
especially lacking in the hindquarters, which are inclined 
to be short and not well muscled. The hair is longer than in 
the horse, somewhat coarser, and the mane and tail possess 
an unusually scanty supply. 

The legs usually show strong bone, but the joints are 
quite frequently large and coarse. The feet are smaller 
and narrower than in the horse, both the legs and feet 
being less subject to unsoundness than in the latter animal. 
There are no callosities on the hindlegs of the ass. The age 
is determined in the same manner as in the horse. 

General Appearance. — In general appearance, the ass does 
not possess the pleasing lines, the rotundity or symmetry 
of form or the massiveness of the horse. These are char- 
acteristics which are deeply fixed, however, and therefore 
(182) 



JACKS AND JENNETS 183 

cannot be criticised absolutely. Considered from the utility 
standpoint, the general form and appearance of the ass is 
subject to much less criticism than when compared with 
the horse. Beauty and appearance are exemplified largely 
by the type of animal under consideration. 

Form Scale and Quality. — Criticisms of the ass, other 
than the general differences ascribed in comparison with 
the horse, are the lack of shape, definition, and finely drawn 
features. The shoulders are not as sloping, the ribs usually 
not as well sprung, the hindquarters not as well developed 
or muscled, and there is not as much definition, quality, or 
refinement in the bones and joints. There is a general lack 
of smoothness and coordination of parts, although this is 
usually more apparent in the head, neck, and hind- 
quarters. 

The height and weight of the ass varies considerably, 
this depending on the breed and condition of the animal. 
In the more approved types, the height approximates 16 
hands. In selecting a jack for breeding, consideration 
should be given to the mating which is to be made. If the 
jack is selected for mating with a mare, the height is not as 
important as when selected for mating with a jennet. A 
larger, rangier animal and one with more height is desirable 
for this purpose. The weight of necessity is determined 
largely by the height and type of the animal, the weight 
ranging from 900 to 1100 pounds in the better bred and more 
desirable types of the approved breeds. 

The quality of the ass is determined in identically the 
same manner as in the horse, although there may be quite 
varying differences in the coordination of the structural 
development of the animal. In the horse lack of quality 
is usually general, while in the ass it is more frequently the 
result of a lack of coordination in structure, although it may 
be generally faulty, the same as in the horse. 

Soundness and Condition. — The ass and the mule are pro- 
verbially less subject to unsoundness than the horse. This 
is due largely to the structure, especially of the feet and the 
use to which the animals are subjected. Condition is largely 
determined by the care and management given these animals. 



184 JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES 

Careless treatment usually develops a very objectionable 
condition in form, appearance, and the prevailing jack 
sores. 

Color. — The several breeds of jacks have characteristic 
colors, the same as in the distinct breeds of horses. The 
jacks most in demand, however, are those possessing black 
or dark brown bodies with white or light points. Gray 
jacks are not desirable either for jennet or mule breeding. 
The darker colors, because of their more stable qualities 
under all conditions of crossing and market adaptability, 
are in much greater demand than any other. Broken colors, 
stars, or white stockings are rare in jacks, jennets, and mules. 

Style and Action. — While these qualities are not usually 
considered important requisites in judging and selecting 
jacks and jennets, they are deserving of consideration, since 
the hereditary tendencies vitally affect the mule, which is 
the standard market animal obtained from crossing the jack 
and the mare. Considered from this standpoint these char- 
acteristics should be given the same consideration as in 
judging the horse. The standard of excellence should be 
clearly in mind, and judgment passed the same as in the 
horse, except that the degree of attainment of style and 
action will not be as noticeable. 

Nervous Development. — The horse and the ass represent 
the extreme in nervous development. The comparison is 
largely identical with the one used in describing the differ- 
ence in the temperament of beef and dairy animals. The 
horse is naturally high spirited, although the degree differs 
materially, depending on the type or breed in question. 
Compared with the more nervous temperament of the horse, 
that of the ass would be classed as lymphatic. In actual 
use both the ass and the mule are very docile, being less 
subject to extremes in temperament than the horse. 

Sex Characteristics. — The principal differences to be ob- 
served in judging the jack and jennet are in the sex char- 
acteristics. The jack should have greater scale and should 
be thoroughly masculine in appearance. The jack should 
have a well-developed body, thus indicating strength, vitality, 
and other evidences of strong reproductive power: The jennet 



JACKS AND JENNETS 185 

should be strongly developed in the region of the reproduc- 
tive organs and be thoroughly feminine in appearance. 
Breeding qualifications are fundamentally the same as in 
judging the mare, other than the normal peculiarities 
involved. 

Uses. — Jacks and jennets, from a commercial viewpoint, 
are used entirely for breeding purposes. The ultimate 
object is the perpetuation of the male for the production of 
mules, which are rapidly increasing in importance. The 
judging of jacks and jennets should be considered on a basis 
of their adaptability for breeding high-class mules. The 
opposite cross made by mating the stallion with the jennet, 
which produces the hinney, is not of great importance. Be- 
cause of this peculiar adaptability of the jack in mule pro- 
duction greater attention should be given to the outcome 
of the cross, when judging the jack, than otherwise. This 
emphasizes the importance of having a definite knowledge 
of the results which will be obtained when a jack of a certain 
type is crossed on mares of different types. Judging jacks 
and jennets therefore brings in greater speculation than when 
judging other classes of breeding animals. Their commercial 
value for this reason depends almost entirely on their heredi- 
tary qualities. Their value in the judging ring is not, there- 
fore, determined on their conformation absolutely but on the 
probable "nick" or blend which will be made on the females 
to which they are bred for mule production. 

Selection. — In selecting a jack consideration should be 
given to the environment to which the animal has been 
subjected. Jacks which have been reared with jennets 
do not cross successfully on mares for mule production. 
This is a trait peculiar to the hybrid cross and, consequently, 
a factor of special significance in purchasing a jack. Jacks 
which prove to be the most successful for mule breeding 
are those which have been reared in company with horse 
colts, young mares, or fillies, therefore jacks should be 
purchased from farms where such environment has been 
provided. 



186 JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES 
Score Card for Jacks. 

Perfect score. 

General Appearance — 20 Points. 

Height: (score according to age) 4 

Weight: (score according to age) 4 

Form: broad, symmetrical, well proportioned, smooth . . 4 

Quality: bone large, strong, clean; hair fine, glossy ... 4 

Temperament: active, disposition agreeable 4 

Head and Neck— 10 Points. 

Head: well proportioned, bone large; profile of nose straight 

or slightly Roman 4 

Muzzle: neat; nostrils large; lips thin, firm 1 

Eyes: full, clear, intelligent, prominent 1 

Forehead: broad, full • . 1 

Ears: long, pointed, well set, alert (33 inches or over, from tip 

to tip, preferred for aged jack) 1 

Neck: long, muscled, throat-latch heavy, windpipe large . 2 

Forehand — 23 Points. 

Shoulders: sloping, smooth 2 

Arm: short, well muscled, correctly set 2 

Forearm: long, clean, heavily muscled 2 

Knees: very wide, deep, strong, clean 2 

Canons: wide, clean, tendons defined, fluted bone ... 2 

Fetlocks: wide, straight, clean 1 

Pasterns: sloping, clean, strong 4 

Feet: large, deep, wide, dense and lively horn 8 

Body — 12 Points. 

Chest: deep, wide, girth large 2 

Ribs: deep, well sprung, closely ribbed to hip 4 

Back: straight, long, muscular 2 

Loins: short, wide, heavy muscled 2 

Underline: long, straight, flanks low 2 

Hindquarters — 29 Points. 

Hips: smooth, well muscled 2 

Croup: wide, muscled, not too sloping 2 

Thighs: deep, broad, muscled, strong 2 

Quarters: deep, well muscled 2 

Stifles: clean, muscular, strong 2 

Gaskins: long, wide, clean 2 

Hocks: large, strong, free from meat, clean, well set . 2 

Canons: wide, clean, tendons defined 2 

Fetlocks: wide, clean, strong, straight ....... 1 

Pasterns: clean, straight, sloping. Any indication of knuck- 
ling should be severely scored 4 

Feet: large, deep with dense and lively horn 8 

Action — 6 Points. 

Walk, straight, elastic, true; trot, true, straight, should show 

bottom of foot when trotting 6 

Total 100 

Breed Characterization. — The following- information re- 
garding jacks and jennets is of special interest from an 



JACKS AND JENNETS 



187 



authoritative standpoint, as only one or two of these breeds 
have become fundamentally important in developing the 
mule industry, which is the basis of the usage of jacks and 
jennets. The jacks now most largely used for mule pro- 
duction are an American product, having originated from 
various crosses and selections from the following breeds and 
others of lesser importance. The American or Mammoth 




jack, which is significantly a product of Kentucky largely, is 
most important in the mule industry of today. 

Catalonian. — The Catalonian breed is a native of northern 
Spain. This is an important breed of jacks from an American 
standpoint, owing to the relation of it to the mule-breeding 
industry of this country. It is the foundation breed of the 
American or Mammoth jack, which is strictly an American 
product. The breed averages from 15 to 15-2 hands high and 
has good style, symmetry, and action. The bone is fine in 



188 JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES 

texture, although not as large and strong as in the Andalusian. 
The color is black or brown, the former color usually pre- 
dominating. The points are light or mealy in color. The 
ears are large and usually erect, the head broad, the eyes 
large and prominent, and the facial lines unusually strong. 
The breed is unusually refined, showing much character, 
style, and action. It is early maturing and extremely popular 
among breeders for mule production. The principal points 
in favor of the breed are the style, quality, color, and refine- 
ment. Compared with the Andalusian it possesses superior 
color, bone, and quality. 

Andalusion. — The Andalusion breed of jacks is a native of 
southern Spain. The breed is of ancient origin and has a 
number of very desirable qualifications. It is characterized 
usually by a gray color. Some specimens of the breed are 
black, although this is rather unusual. The breed has never 
become popular in America, this being partly due to the 
gray color which is considered objectionable. Representative 
specimens of the breed range from 14-2 to 15-2 hands high. 
The breed is characterized by good bone, which is hard and 
fine in texture. The head is broad, well shaped, and expres- 
sive. The breed possesses considerable style and cleanness 
and trimness of outline. Some of the other breeds, because 
of more desirable color qualifications and their special 
adaptability to mule production, have become more promi- 
nent. The quality and temperament of the breed are very 
acceptable. While a great many jacks of this breed have 
been imported, they have not gained special prominence. 

Poitou. — The Poitou breed is a native of France, where 
it is regarded very favorably. Specimens of this breed 
have never been widely introduced into the United States, 
and they are therefore not of practical interest. The color 
is black with light points, although grays are not uncommon. 
The gray color is neither popular with this or other breeds, 
Poitou jacks, gray in color, not being eligible to registry in 
the French Record Book. In the native home the animals 
are ill-managed and usually present a very unattractive 
appearance. The hair is allowed to become long, shaggy, 
and matted, the natural tendency being to a profuse growth 



JACKS AND JENNETS 



1S9 



of fine-qualitied hair. The head is large, the ears long, the 
neck short, chest broad, and the joints and hocks unusually 
large. The bone is large and the feet of superior size. As a 
whole the breed is large and massive in development, although 
not the most attractive and apparently not the most useful 
under the conditions which they are produced. They are 
said to breed large, superior, weighty mules. Better care 




Fig. 78. — A Poitou jack, one of the rare breeds of imported jacks. 
(Courtesy of Adirondack Stock Farms, Glens Falls, N. Y.) 

and attention is important in subserving the best interests 
of the breed in their native home. 

Maltese. — The Maltese jack is a native of the Island of 
Malta in the Mediterranean sea. This breed has never 
become popular in American trade, as it has been sup- 
planted by other more important imported and American- 
bred jacks. Specimens of the breed are small, ranging on 
the average about 14 hands high. The color is either black 



190 JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES 

or brown. One of the principal criticisms of the breed is 
its lack of size, bone, and substance. The head is very well 
developed, the ears upright and fine in quality. Although 
the breed has several very desirable attributes its lack of size 
has reacted very much against it. These jacks are vigorous 
and show unusual vitality when in service. The attainment 
of more size is necessary to make the breed of practical 
value in mule production. This is very important in a 
jack because of the general inclination toward miniature 
development in the offspring, either from a jennet or a 
mare. While the largest jacks are not always the most 
useful or valuable, size, quality, and substance are important 
attributes in mule production. 

Majorca. — The Majorca jack, imported from the Island 
of Majorca in the Mediterranean sea, while one of the largest 
breeds imported, has not become popular as a breeder in 
this country. With the exception of the French Poitou, it 
is the largest breed of jacks, often measuring 16 hands high; 
the average being somewhat under this height. The lack 
of style, finish and action, however, has mitigated against 
its popularity. The breed is characterized by extreme 
sluggishness not desired in any breeding animal. The 
head and ears are unusually large and the body, as a whole, 
lacks compactness and symmetry. Although pure bred 
for a great many years in its native home, its sphere of use- 
fulness has been rather limited. In Spain it has met with 
considerable success in breeding army mules. The breed 
is suggestive of criticism from almost every standpoint 
except size and weight. Breed description is largely a matter 
of interest rather than utility qualifications. 

Italian. — The Italian jack is the smallest of the breeds, 
the average height ranging from 13 to 14 hands. The color 
is black usually, although gray is not uncommon. The bone 
is rather large and above the average in quality. The jacks 
are of very little importance either as jack or jennet pro- 
ducers. In their native home they are used principally 
for packing purposes. They resemble the Maltese jack 
very much, it being believed by some that one is the de- 
scendant of the other. The breed is too small for using on 



JACKS AND JENNETS 



191 



jennets, although very desirable for the production of small 
mules. The small size of the breed and, therefore, a limited 
demand for them, has been responsible for the discontinuance 
of their importation. 

American. — The American or Mammoth jack is a distinc- 
tive breed which is a derivative of the several breeds of jacks, 
principally the Catalonian, imported into this country at an 
early date. The breed is distinctly American and was not 




Fig. 79. — An American or Mammoth jack with weight, style, and quality. 
(Courtesy Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station.) 



pedigreed by a systematic plan until 1892. A registry asso- 
ciation — American Jack Stock Stud Book — was established 
in 1888. Up to the former date jacks which did not attain 
a height of 14-2 hands and jennets 14 hands were not eligible 
to registry. After this date jacks and jennets to be eligible 
to registration were required to be 15-2 hands and 15 hands 
respectively, unless produced from recorded ancestry. In 
case of an imported jack, the minimum height standard 
was set at 15 hands. 



192 JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES 

The following measurements are given as typical of this 
breed : 



Tip to tip of ears 

Width between eyes 

Length of face (poll to end of upper lip) 
Circumference of jaw and face . 
" neck 

girth 
flank 
arm 
" knee 



canon 
hock 



33 

9 
33 
40 
42 
70 
72 
16; 
16 

9 J 
19 
10i 



inches 



From poll (between ears) to end of tail (total length of 
body) 84 inches. The principal factors to consider in 
selecting the jack are weight, bone, style, action, constitution 
and finish. A jack measuring 15| to 16 hands and weighing 
about 1050 pounds in moderate flesh is a good standard to 
follow in selection. 

Description of American Jack. — Hooper and Anderson 1 
describe prize-winning jacks of today as having size and 
weight, good legs and feet, and fluted bone of desirable 
size. The head should be long, well formed, and the ears 
33 inches or more from tip to tip. The prevailing color is 
black with light points. The standard height at maturity 
is 15 to 16 hands, such animals weighing from 1050 to 1150 
pounds. The girth measurement ranges from 68 to 72 
inches. The loin measurement should not be more than 
one or two inches less than the girth measurement. The 
canon bone should be from eight to nine and one-half 
inches in circumference. A jack 15 hands, 3 inches high, 
and weighing 1150 pounds should measure not less than 
nine inches below the knee. The hock should be from 18 
to 21 inches in circumference, the gaskin measurement 
approximating 16 inches, and the rear canon 10 inches in 
circumference. 



Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station. 



MULES 193 



MULES. 



Uses and Adaptation. — The mule is a hybrid obtained from 
crossing a jack on a mare, the hinney being the result of the 
opposite cross, or a stallion on a jennet. The latter cross 
is not recommended and is very infrequently made, as 
the hinney is inferior to the mule in size and other draft 
qualities. In this country the principal use of the mule is 
on the farm, in lumber and railroad camps, in the mines, 
and in army service. The mule is not adapted to city use, 
principally because of insufficient weight and small feet, 
which are not adapted to hauling on pavements. Through- 
out the South the mule constitutes the work type of animal 
almost to the exclusion of draft horses. Very few mules 
are raised in this section, however, a large proportion of 
them being shipped from the important mule-producing 
States, which are Kentucky, Tennessee, and Missouri. The 
mule is especially adapted to Southern conditions, having 
a greater resistance to heat and the unusually hard usage 
to which they are subjected by colored teamsters. Their 
hardiness is unusually apparent and because of this attribute 
they are placed at rough work where the more nervous 
temperament of horses would receive a severe test. Mules 
are also used largely in the South for driving purposes, 
select animals making very acceptable substitutes for the 
horse. The lymphatic temperament of the mule and the 
accompanying hardiness and resistance to rough treatment 
makes them especially valuable in draft service % of this 
character. Because of the increase of this character of 
work and the correspondingly increasing magnitude of the 
mule industry, the mule and its ancestral relations are 
deserving of more specific study in the class room and on the 
farm. 

General Requirements. — The characteristics which mark a 
perfect type of horse will in a general way coincide with the 
attributes desired in the mule. From a purely market stand- 
point the requirements for the mule are largely the same 
as those of the horse. Market requirements prescribe that 
they must be sound, possess quality, have a fine, sleek coat 
13 



194 JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES 




MULES 195 

of hair, and be in good flesh. The mule should be compact, 
and should possess ample strength and endurance, these 
qualities being indicated by a full, capacious chest, broad 
muzzle, and large nostril. The color should be solid, except 
when characterized by light points, which adds to the fancy 
and qualifications for discriminating judges and buyers. 
Mare mules are usually preferred because of early maturing 
qualities. 

Age Limitations. — Mules, like horses, usually have a higher 
market value and sell to better advantage when from four 
to eight years of age, although young mule colts sell ad- 
vantageously on the open market. From a purely utility 
standpoint, the mule possesses an unusual amount of vitality, 



vi 


ihk. 


► Ihv 




Inff \f. 


•— 


-v 




.... jjjt- 


V. ',- , -■"■ 



Fig. 81. — Mules with style and finish have an infusion of light horse blood. 

often continuing in service to an extreme age under adverse 
circumstances. While advancing age interferes with the 
normal capacity of the mule it retains very exceptional 
enduring qualities until late in life, on the average being 
much superior to the horse in this respect. Market con- 
siderations are based on the age, conformation, quality, 
style, and action. These factors are all important in the 
prime mule, the age limit mentioned being directly correlated 
with these factors in mules possessing the most desirable 
market attributes. On the whole, age does not affect the 
selling qualities of mules to the same extent that it does the 
horse. They sell both younger and older to better advantage. 
Height and Weight. — The height and weight of the mule 
depends entirely on the proposed use or market class con- 



196 JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES 




MULES 197 

siderations. Mature mules range in weight from GOO to 1600 
pounds or over. It is only on the larger markets that the 
heavier and draftier animals may be obtained. The 1100 to 
1200-pound mule is best suited to average conditions and is 
therefore in greatest demand, as a general rule. The heavier 
bred mules are not generally as much in favor because they 
are frequently not as smooth in form or as agile as the horse 
of similar weight. The lighter mules are used for work 
which is less exacting in its requirements and usually where 
weight is not of first consideration. The height and weight 
are very closely associated, except in unusual instances where 
dissimilar or rare crosses have been made. The draftier, 
weightier mules average about 16 hands high or over and 
weigh from 1200 to 1600 pounds. 

General Conformation. — In general, the form of the mule 
should conform closely to that of the horse. While the 
best individuals do not equal the horse in its square, compact 
form, the nearer this ideal is approached the greater the value 
of the animal from the market standpoint. Mules do not 
possess the same amount of symmetry or rotundity of form 
as the horse. The correlation of the parts is not as sig- 
nificant, there being a greater tendency for each part to 
individualize itself. This is not necessarily a fault, how- 
ever, as a complete harmonious cross would not naturally be 
obtained under the conditions in which mules are produced. 
The mule has a grosser appearance than the horse, less 
definition of structure, and clear-cut lines. The tendency 
to resemble the jack is apparent. 

The body of the mule is less cylindrical than that of the 
horse, smaller, and less capacious. However, the nearer 
the general body conformation of the mule approaches 
that of the draft horse the better it is liked, both on the 
market and in the show ring. The feet of the mule are 
smaller and longer than in the horse and the arch of the 
foot is greater. The mule is characterized by moderately 
clean, square legs, and good feet. The ears are long, the body 
comparatively narrow, and the hindquarters inclined to be 
light and unsymmetrical as compared with the horse. Fre- 
quently the croup is higher than the withers, thus resembling 



198 JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES 

the male parent. The foretop, mane and tail are not as 
profuse with hair as in the horse, the tail of the ass or mule 
having a brush or tuft. The bone of the mule is usually 
acceptable, although the joints are sometimes coarse and 
undefined. The chief distinctions between the mule and 
the horse are the smaller size, lighter weight, less style and 
symmetry, less definition of form, and less refinement of 
the mule. 




Fig. 83. — A draft mule with quality and finish. 



Quality. — Mules do not show the same amount of quality as 
horses, breeding considered. The indications of these qualities, 
however, are the same. The head should be fine, trim and clear 
in outline; the neck and shoulders smooth and compactly 
laid in; the bone hard, square and well defined; and the hair 
straight, sleek, and oily. The joints should be well defined, 
and the tendons should stand back perceptibly from the 



MULES 199 

canon bone. Coarseness of quality is indicated by a soft, 
spongy bone, coarse, rough hair, and undefined features. 
In judging quality in the mule the line of demarcation 
should not be too rigidly drawn between it and the horse, 
as while the same standard is used it is not often as closely 
approached. General symmetry and refinement of the whole 
animal should otherwise be indicative of the possession or 
absence of quality. 

Condition. — Condition in the mule has the same general 
application as in the horse. Most mules are fattened for 
market often to an excessive degree. This excessive accumu- 
lation of fat is objectionable from the standpoint of judging, 
selecting, and working capacity. Although a mule in high 
condition has a higher market value than otherwise, such 
preparation is often the cause of misjudging an animal. 
Great care should be taken in selecting mules, especially 
those from large sale barns where high fitting is practised. 
A mule in low condition is not attractive, although it is 
often more valuable than after having been fattened and 
later reduced in flesh. 

The stress placed on condition should be governed largely 
by the type of the mule under consideration. The natural 
form or muscular development should fix the value of a 
mule the same as of a horse. The general muscle develop- 
ment is determined by the length and width of the gaskin 
or lower thigh. Prominent muscular development in this 
part is indicative of the general body covering. A well- 
formed mule will naturally fatten and finish smoothly, while 
excessive fat on an ill-formed mule will cover many defects. 
These factors are mentioned because of the uniform practice 
of shaping and selling mules in high condition in most sale 
stables. When selections are thus made fat and flesh should 
be clearly distinguished. 

Color. — The color of the mule is important from the 
market standpoint, as a premium is usually paid for mules 
possessing some standard solid color. The most acceptable 
colors are black, dark brown, bay, dark gray, sorrel, and 
light gray. The dark, solid colors are in greatest demand. 
Black or dark-colored jacks are always in greatest demand 



200 JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES 

for mule-producing; purposes. Gray or light-colored jacks 
have never become popular, although some excellent steel or 
dark gray mules are placed on the market. However, this 
may be the result of using gray or light-colored mares. 
Fancy mules are drawn from black, dark brown or dark 
gray-colored animals. 

Soundness. — The mule is ordinarily subject to the same 
kinds of unsoundness as the horse. However, these troubles 
are not usually developed to the same degree. The natural 
hardiness of the mule has apparently developed the quality 
of resistance to hereditary and transmissible diseases. This 
condition, in conjunction with the sure-footed qualities of 
these animals in rough, treacherous places of work or travel, 
gives them a specially significant value. It renders a service 
possible in the mule which could not ordinarily be developed 
in animals possessing less hardiness or stability of action. 

Temperament and Endurance. — The mule is a steady, per- 
sistent animal, moving loads more by intrinsic muscular 
effort rather than by weight qualifications, one of the chief 
attributes of the draft horse. In this respect there is very 
little analogy between the mule and the horse. Notwith- 
standing the lymphatic temperament of the mule, it should 
show active, energetic qualities as well as good style, sym- 
metry, and action. Under the labor conditions in the South, 
the mule is worked very much more successfully than the 
horse. It will do work under the severest conditions without 
necessarily showing any indication of fatigue. The credited 
resistance of the mule to disease, its endurance, patience 
and docility are commendable attributes, these factors being 
largely responsible for the widespread favor of these animals 
under severe or trying conditions. 

Style and Action. — The mule is a draft type of animal, 
broadly considered, although it is used largely for general 
farm and other utility purposes. In the South it is employed 
for driving, especially among the smaller farmers. Style 
and action should be judged consistently with hybrid 
qualifications. Compared with the horse, these attributes 
are only moderately developed, although as much of both 
should be obtained as possible. The stride should be long, 



MULES 201 

straight, uniform, and well balanced. Both walk and trot 
should be brisk, free, smooth, even, and balanced. The 
various phases of action should be judged on the same basis 
as in the horse. 

Structural Form and Qualifications. — The detailed struct- 
ural form of the mule is the same as in the horse. Ordinarily 
the mule does not attain the same size, although it is higher 
in proportion to weight than in the latter animal. The 
head should be broad, deep, and have length in proportion. 
The facial outlines should be clear cut, the eyes large and 
prominent, and the ears large, erect and pointed. The neck 
should be long and deep and blend evenly into the shoulders, 
which should have sufficient obliquity to give a reasonably 
high carriage of head and neck and a short, strong back. 
The body should be long, closely coupled, deep ribbed, and 
symmetrical. The chest should be broad and deep and the 
forelegs set well apart, thus giving good support. 

The hindquarters should be long, the croup level, the 
thighs smooth and symmetrical. It is in the hindquar- 
ters, however, that the greatest and most noticeable faults 
are found in the mule. The croup is often too steep, the 
hips sloping, and the thighs narrow. This condition should 
be avoided as much as possible. The hindlegs should be 
straight, strong and square in bone and well muscled in 
the thighs and gaskins. The feet should be large and the 
horn fine and dense in quality. These qualifications should 
be closely observed, as the feet of the mule are frequently 
narrow and contracted. The pasterns should be strong and 
have a sufficient slope to give ease and balance of move- 
ment. Other than these considerations, the points of the 
horse should form the basis of comparison. 

The following points on judging the mule were furnished 
by J. W. Jones, Jack and Mule Judge, Nashville, Term. 

The mule should be of some good solid color. White 
points are desirable, although they add fancy and not utility. 

The mule should have quality, as the expert buyers term 
it. This is an all-around fineness that portrays good blood 
and breeding with conformation that indicates the best 
development of the nervous system, together with stamina 
and ability to withstand much work. 



202 JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES 

The head should be large and unusually bony, with a Roman 
nose free from a meaty appearance. The features should 
be prominent, with a pleasant appearance. 

The neck should come out well back on the shoulders and 
should be arched, thus making an inclined plane from the 
shoulders to the top of the head. The chest should be 
deep and prominent, protruding like the breast of a turkey. 

The shoulders should be long and protrude well into the 
back. The collar-bone should be broad and sloping. 

The legs should be nearly straight, with broad, clean, 
large bone, free from meatiness. The feet should be large, 
well rounded, and strongly braced from all quarters of the 
inner joints. 

The knees should be broad, deep, and firmly set. The 
hocks should be broad and muscular, but the feet free from 
meatiness. 

The forearm and stifle should be well developed, thickly 
covered with muscle tapering to the knee and hock in regular 
well-defined lines. 

The hoof should not present a ribbed appearance, but 
should be smooth and inclined to look sleek and oily. It 
should not be contracted, but well sprung and supported by 
a well-extended, healthy frog. The old saying, "no foot no 
mule," is literally true, as it is in any other kind of travelling 
animal. 

As an evidence of strength and indication of great staying 
qualities, the loin and croup, as well as the chest, should be 
broad and well developed. 

The spring of the ribs is important, as they should range 
close up to the hip-bone and come out from the spine well 
sprung and extended. A flat rib is very objectionable. 

The ears should be long, thin and tapering to the points, 
presenting a rather folding appearance about the middle. 
They should be set on the head erect. 

The coat of hair should be soft and shiny, covering a pliable 
skin, mellow and soft to the touch. This denotes good 
fattening qualities. 

The mule should have good length with a low-set flank 
and bowels. He should have all the weight possible. 



MULES 203 

Score Card for Mules. 

General Appearance — 16 Points. Perfect score. 
Weight: score according to age and type. 
Height: 14 hands and up; estimated.. hands; actual 

hands 4 

Form: symmetrical, smooth 4 

Quality: bones clean; tendons defined; skin and hair fine . 4 

Temperament; energetic; good disposition 4 

Head and Neck — 6 Points. 

Head: well defined; medium size 1 

Muzzle: fine; nostrils large; lips thin and even .... 

Eyes: full, bright, clear 1 

Forehead: flat, broad, full 

Ears: large, well carried, tapering ...... 

Neck: muscled, crested; throat-latch defined; windpipe large 1 

Forehand — 21 Points. 

Shoulder: long, sloping, well muscled 2 

Arm: short, muscled, thrown well forward and backward; 

forearm well muscled, long, wide 3 

Knees: wide, clean, straight, deep, well supported; canons 

short, wide; tendons well defined 4 

Fetlocks: wide, straight, strong; pasterns short, clean, straight, 

angle with ground 45 degrees 4 

Feel: size medium, even; horn dense; sole concave; bars 

strong; frog prominent, elastic; heel wide, high .... 6 
Withers: smooth, well muscled, continuous with neck and 

back 2 

Body — 8 Points. 

Chest: deep, low; girth large 1 

Ribs: long, sprung close 2 

Back: straight, short, well muscled 2 

Loins: wide, short, thick 2 

Underline: long; flank low . 1 

Hindquarters — 29 Points. 

Hips: smooth, wide, level; croup wide, muscular .... 4 

Tail: attached high, well carried 1 

Thighs: long, well muscled, open angled 2 

Quarters: heavily muscled, deep ■ 2 

Gaskin: wide muscled • • 2 

Hocks: wide, well defined, strongly supported, straight; 

canons short, wide, tendons set well back 9 

Fetlocks: wide, straight; pasterns short, angle with ground 

55 degrees - 5 

Feet: medium size, even; horn dense; frog prominent, elastic; 

bars strong; sole concave; heel high, wide 4 

Action — 20 Points. 

Walk smooth, stride long, active; trot rapid, straight, 

regular 20 

Total 100 

Qualifications of Mule Mares. — The qualifications of 
mule mares vary, depending on the type of mule which is 



204 JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES 

to be produced. There are certain attributes, however, 
which a mule mare should possess regardless of this factor. 
Such an animal should have size, weight, good conformation, 
quality, and refinement. The head should show an intelligent, 
lively disposition, and the temperament should be active. 
The barrel should be long, deep, broad, thus indicating 
capacity. The feet and legs should be normal from every 
viewpoint, including the normal position of the feet and legs 
as formerly described, and quality should be therein indicated. 




Fig. 84. — A characteristic mule mare. (Courtesy Kentucky Agricultural 
Experiment Station.) 



Because of the generally recognized, comparatively coarse 
qualities of the jack, mule mares should possess unusual 
quality and refinement. Heavy draft mares are not as 
desirable for this purpose as those possessing some of the 
blood from the lighter breeds, such as the Standardbred 
or Thoroughbred. There should be sufficient blood from 
these breeds incorporated in the mule mare to overcome 
the coarser qualities dominating in the jack. Suffolk mares 
are credited with good mule-producing qualifications. 

The body of the jack has a tendency to angularity and, 



MULES 205 

therefore, he should not be mated with mares of this con- 
formation. Mares with comparatively large, smooth, sym- 
metrical bodies will add size, smoothness, and refinement to 
the mule. Mares possessing an undue amount of cold blood 
are not adapted to mule production. In seeking refinement 
it should not be carried to the extreme and thus decrease the 
size of the mule, as such animals are not readily salable at 
remunerative prices. The principal attributes of the mule- 
producing mare are included in moderate height and weight, 
a body with squareness of form, well proportioned with the 
other regions, smoothness and symmetry, strong bone, 
quality and general refinement, thus showing a moderate 
amount of light horse finish and refining characteristics. 

Market Classes of Mules. — The mule markets recognize 
several classes which include the following: draft, farm, 
sugar, cotton, and mining mules. The first two classes 
are generally of special significance, although not the most 
widely bred or used. Market mules are sold wholly on 
their fitness for draft, agricultural, army, or mine use. 

The Illinois Experiment Station defines them on a basis 
of height and weight qualifications as follows: 

Class. Height in hands. Weight range. 

Draft mules 16 to 17-2 1200 to 1600 

Farm mules 15-2 to 16 900 to 1250 

Sugar mules 16 to 17 1150 to 1300 

Cotton mules 13-2 to 15-2 750 to 1100 

Mining mules 12 to 16 600 to 1350 

Draft Mules. — This type of mule is the largest which is 
placed on the market. Their height ranges from 16 to 17-2 
hands, and their weight from 1200 to 1600 pounds. They 
should be large and strong in bone, although the quality 
should be up to standard, the same as in the horse. They 
should be compact, deep bodied, low set, closely coupled, and 
have symmetry of form throughout. The muscling should 
be heavy, especially about the thighs and quarters. They 
should have a hardy and rugged appearance, such as that 
which characterizes the draft type of the horse. Mules of 
this type possessing plenty of quality and substance are 
capable of doing heavy team work, and their value for this 



206 JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES 

purpose is being appreciated more as they are given fair 
trials. 

Farm Mules. — Farm mules, as the name designates, are 
used almost exclusively for agricultural purposes. The 
type varies considerably, although many very valuable 




Fig. 85. — Draft mules 16j hands high, weighing 1050 pounds. 



animals are classed as farm mules. The height of this type 
ranges from 15 to 16 hands, and the weight ranges from 900 
to 1300 pounds. Mules of this type are not as symmetrical 
or as heavily muscled as those of the draft type, which are 
supposed to represent the acme of mule production. Farm 
mules are somewhat rangier, the bone is inclined to be lighter, 
the body less compact, and the animal, as a whole, more 



MULES 



207 



upstanding. They should possess good bone, feet of moder- 
ate size and quality sufficient to make them sell readily 
on the market. 

Sugar Mules. — Sugar mules are used largely throughout 
the Southern states on the sugar farms or plantations. 
The name is significant of the work which is required of 




Fig. 



86. — Draft mules, showing two good colors. Suitable either for draft 
or farm purposes. 



them. These mules range in height from 16 to 17 hands, 
and weigh from 1150 to 1300 pounds. Usually they are 
heavier and more compact than the cotton mule. Mare 
mules are most desired for the trade, ranging from three to 
six years old. The quality is usually above the average and 
the general appearance is very striking, especially in the 
indication of breediness. Weight, finish, and quality are 



208 JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES 

greater on the average than that of the cotton or farm mule. 
For this reason sugar mules sell for more money. In judging 
sugar mules special attention should be given to weight, 
quality, and adaptability to the work in question. The bone 
should be fine and strong, the joints well developed, and the 
feet somewhat larger than that of the average mule. They 
should be symmetrical in their build, possess an intelligent 




Fig. 87. — A choice sugar mule. 



(Courtesy Illinois Agricultural Experiment 
Station.) 



and shapely head, be strong in the neck and shoulder develop- 
ment, and compact throughout the body. 

Mining Mules. — Mining mules are used in the mines and, 
consequently, do not possess the size and weight of the other 
classes mentioned. The character of work for which they 
are used, especially pit mules, necessitates a rather small, 
agile type of animal. They range in weight from 600 to 
1350 pounds, this depending upon whether they are used in 
the pit or above. Only the smaller types are used under 



MULES 209 

ground, and as a large majority of them are purchased for 
this purpose the average height and weight runs low. In 
height they range from 12 to 16 hands. The body should 
be compactly built, the legs short and strong, the bone 
rather heavy, and the feet large. It is necessary to have 
animals without blemishes, as such a condition is likely to 




3. — A mine mule, showing characteristics of medium pitter. 
(Courtesy Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station.) 

give trouble because of the sulphur and chemicals to which 
they are subjected underground. 

Cotton Mules. — Cotton mules are used largely for the culti- 
vation of cotton throughout the Southern states. The 
demand is usually for a rather small type of animal, the 
weight ranging from 650 to 1100 pounds and the height 
14 



210 JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES 



from 13 to 15-2 hands. This type of mule is of still lighter 
build than the mining mule 1 . The body is inclined to be 
somewhat rangy, the bone small, and the body upstanding. 
The quality should be uniform and of about the same stand- 
ard as that possessed by the mining mule, the difference 
being in favor of the latter. 

These mules are usually brought into the South in the early 
spring before the cotton-planting season begins. In the fall 




Fig. 89. — A choice cotton mule. (Courtesy Illinois Agricultural 
Experiment Station.) 

they are frequently sold back to the dealers, refattened at 
the close of the year and sold again the following season. 
For this reason the age varies considerably. Although a 
standard market type, the age is not as uniform as in other 
types, which are sold and placed immediately in continuous 
service. 

1 Compared with surface-mining mule. 



HORSES, JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES 211 



EXAMINATION FOR UNSOUNDNESS AND FAULTY 
CONFORMATION. 1 

HORSES, JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES. 

Relation of Soundness to Utility. — In consideration of domes- 
tic animals, it is largely in the horse and mule that the 
determination of the degree of soundness, specifically con- 
sidered, is of practical consideration. • In other animals, 
structural development and the nature of work performed 
does not tend to produce such conditions. In horses and 
other draft animals, broadly speaking, an unsoundness or 
faulty conformation is of vital concern, as the presence or 
absence of these conditions determines or measures value 
both in breeding and draft service. While the ratio of value 
may differ, depending on the use of the animal and nature of 
the unsoundness or faulty conformation, under any conditions 
the value is depreciated, ranging from that of a slight objec- 
tion to practical worthlessness. Determination of these con- 
ditions involves not only a broad knowledge of the structure 
of horses and mules whereby abnormalities may be detected 
but also a knowledge of the resulting depreciation in value 
for draft or breeding purposes. 

Definition and Limitations. — An unsoundness is any 
abnormal condition which makes an animal less capable or 
which will, during development, decrease natural usefulness. 
An absolutely sound animal does not possess the slightest 
deviation from the normal structure. Such animals are 
rare, however, as slight defects are usually present in the 
most perfect specimens, although they do not usually interfere 
with the usefulness or market value. Soundness is relative 
and not absolute, a horse usually being practically sound and 
not absolutely so. 

An unsoundness should be differentiated from a blemish 
which simply depreciates the market value of an animal 
usually without impairing usefulness. A blemish may 

1 Special credit due M. H. Reynolds, University of Minnesota. 



212 JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES 

occasionally impair usefulness; however, such conditions 
are rare. Blemishes usually decrease market value only, 
while an unsoundness decreases both market value and use- 
fulness. A theoretically sound horse is one which has no 
disease or other condition that interferes with his usefulness 
or market value. He may have a disease from which he 
will recover, yet at the time of the examination such an 
animal will be unsound. 

Unsoundness may be temporary or permanent. Tem- 
porary unsoundness may be illustrated by an influenza from 
which a horse will probably recover, or by light sprains or a 
bruised ankle from interfering. In the latter case the 
question would arise at once whether the interfering was due 
to faulty conformation or to faulty shoeing. In the former 
case the condition would be serious, while in the latter it 
would be unimportant as it could be remedied by shoeing 
the animal properly. 

Normal Conditions. — It is necessary to become familiar 
with the usual normal and abnormal conditions for com- 
parative purposes. The hocks may be perfectly sound 
and yet have a peculiar bony development. In such cases 
it will generally be found that both hocks are alike. The 
knees may have a similar peculiar development and yet be 
perfectly sound. It is necessary to become familiar with all 
such conditions before an animal can be examined rapidly 
and accurately. 

General Examination. — An examination for soundness 
should be systematic and thorough, although it may be 
rapidly accomplished. The examination should be made with 
the horse in the stall, as he backs out, stands at rest, and in 
motion. In the stall he should be examined for cribbing, 
weaving or any other stable habit which is objectionable. 
As the horse backs out of the stall, he may show a peculiar 
use of the hindlegs or imperfect control, due to serious 
disorders of the nervous system. Frequently the first 
intimation of spavin may be detected as the animal is made 
to stand from side to side, particularly as he steps toward the 
spavined leg. 

After the animal is taken out of the stall his movements 



HORSES, JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES 213 

should be observed while walking and trotting. He should 
be viewed coming toward, passing by, and going from the 
observer, who should note the movement of the entire body 
and the use of each limb. It is especially important to 
observe the head and hips in locating the diseased limb. 
The front foot is a very common seat of lameness. 

Locating Lameness. — It is usually quite easy for any 
observer to recognize that an animal is lame, provided the 
lameness is at all decided, but there are many cases where 
the lameness is so very slight that it is difficult for an expert 
to locate it or even be sure that the animal is lame. A very 
common error is that of locating the lameness on the wrong 
side. This is easily avoided if it is remembered that the 
head and weight of the body in general come down most 
noticeably with the sound limb. For instance, a horse which 
is lame in the left front leg will drop the head very perceptibly 
as he lands upon the right front leg. 

Some forms of lameness are detected with great difficulty 
when the animal is walking, but are easily seen when trotting. 
It is usually conceded that the latter is the best gait for 
diagnostic purposes, although the observer should study the 
movements at both the walk and trot if possible. The 
animal should be tried on both hard and soft ground, and 
on the side of a hill. If the lameness is in the foot, it is 
most marked when the animal travels on hard ground. On 
the contrary, when a horse is lame in the shoulder, he is 
apt to travel with great difficulty in deep mud or snow. 

Bony Growths. — Splints, spavins, and ringbones, are simply 
developments of bony tissue, the result of an inflammation 
of the periosteum. These are all recognized as forms of 
unsoundness, and usually cause lameness. This inflamma- 
tion may have its origin in bruises or other injuries, or possibly 
the inflammation in this tissue may be the result of an extend- 
ing inflammation from some adjoining tissue, but in any case 
the result is usually a projecting development of bony tissue. 

Splints. — These appear as small tumors along the meta- 
carpal bones, usually at the junction of the large and small 
metacarpals. They may be of various shapes and sizes. 
They are generally more serious when located near the knee. 



214 JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES 

Occasionally there appears what is known as a pegged splint, 
in which the growth extends across the back of the canon, 
beneath the suspensory ligament. 

The lameness which results from splints is rather easily 
recognized: (1) By locating the splint, noting the sensitive- 
ness to pressure at this point. A peculiarity of the lameness 
is that the horse walks nearly or quite sound, but trots very 
lame, especially on hard ground. There is a natural tendency 
to recover. Lameness from splints is rarely seen in aged 
horses for this reason. (2) When the splint appears very 
close to the knee, or in the pegged form, there is less prospect 
of natural recovery, and with the latter form lameness is very 
apt to be permanent, unless relieved by surgical means. 

Ringbone. — This is characterized by enlargement of some 
portion of the pastern bones. It may be in front, behind, 
on either side, or extend entirely around this region. It 
may be located near the crown of the hoof or very much 
higher, thus dividing ringbone artificially into two classes, 
high and low. 

Ringbones are very much more serious forms of unsound- 
ness than splints, as they are more apt to be permanent 
in effect, and even if the soreness is relieved, there is likely 
to be a mechanical lameness because of a stiffened joint. 
This unsoundness and the lameness resulting from it are very 
easily detected. 

Sidebones. — A sidebone indicates an abnormal condition 
of the lateral cartilages, which are naturally elastic. Side- 
bones are detected as bonelike structures which appear above 
the crown of the hoof and just beneath the skin on either 
side. They may cause lameness during the period of inflam- 
mation and hardening. In some cases the lameness is 
persistent. 

Spavin. — The cause of lameness, recognized under the name 
of bone spavin, is an abnormal condition of the tarsal bones 
at the lower, inner, front portion of the hock. There is 
usually an enlargement, varying from a very small growth, 
commonly called a jack, to a very large growth, known as 
bone spavin. 

There is another form of bone spavin in which there is a 



HOUSES, JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES 215 

slight or possibly no external development at all. In this 
form of spavin there may be diseases of the bones in the 
deeper parts; particularly erosions of the articular cartilages. 
Animals with bone spavins have a tendency to recover with- 
out treatment, although in many cases the period required for 
natural recovery is very long, extending through a period of 
years. In other cases recovery can never occur. Recovery, 
when brought about by natural or artificial conditions, implies 
that certain of the tarsal bones have united in the process 
called technically, anchylosis, and the inflamed surfaces are 
no longer rubbing together as the limb moves. 

Many bone spavins doubtless appear as the result of slight 
injuries in susceptible subjects, particularly those that have 
a strong hereditary tendency to diseases of this kind. Bone 
spavin is one of the most serious forms of unsoundness. A 
spavined horse steps on the toe, and carries the hock-joint 
with as little movement as possible. The lameness usually 
disappears or at least greatly improves with exercise. What 
is known as the hock test is made by holding up the limb, 
with the hock sharply bent, for several minutes. The horse 
is then started suddenly. In case of spavin the first few steps 
are very lame. Old horses not affected by spavin may respond 
to this test and lead to error in judgment. 

Synovial Sacs. — The ordinary wind puffs of the ankle, 
and bog spavins and thoroughpins at the hock, are typical 
illustrations of enlarged synovial sacs. They are not usually 
the cause of lameness, but are to be regarded rather as 
symptoms. 

Wind puffs usually indicate considerable amount of hard 
road work. 

Bog Spavins. — These are enlargements of the synovial 
sac of the hock-joint, and appear at the inner and front 
part of the hock. They are often hereditary. 

Thoroughpins are very similar to bog spavins and wind 
puffs, except in location. Thoroughpins appear at the 
upper and back part of the hock. They may or may not 
connect with the synovial sac of the hock-joint. 

Open Joint. — Lameness from open joint is quite common 
among city horses. This usually results from punctures of 



216 JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND* MULES 

the synovial sacs and the entrance of foreign matter, resulting 
in an acute inflammation or synovitis. This form of lame- 
ness can usually be very easily detected, and the cause 
recognized. It is very serious under all circumstances, and 
frequently results in loss of the animal. 

Curb. — This is a result of an injury or strain at the back 
of the hock-joints, and is characterized at first by a hot, 
sensitive swelling just back of the lowest part of the hock- 
joint. After the period of swelling and inflammation sub- 
sides, there is apt to remain a hard tumor, particularly on 
what is known as curby hocks. In cases of young animals 
given proper treatment the remaining enlargement may be 
very slight or may practically disappear. 

Capped Hock. — Capped hock is not usually a cause or 
condition of lameness; but is mentioned for other reasons. 
This is an unusual prominence at the point of the hock, 
produced by bruises. Some horses get it by backing against 
the stalls, so that they injure the point of the hock. Other 
cases are produced in car shipments, or from a natural 
tendency. The first swelling may usually be reduced by 
prompt treatment, but it returns with very slight provoca- 
tion, and after several attacks is likely to be permanent. 
This abnormality does not injure horses for actual use, but 
it is unsightly, and materially reduces the sale value. 

Shoe Boil. — This appears as an enlargement in the point 
of the elbow or superior extremity of the ulna. It is very 
similar to capped hock in cause, character, and subsequent 
history. Shoe boils are unsightly and injure sale, but do not 
usually cause lameness. 

Other Important Examinations. — The poll should be 
examined for evidences of enlargement, roughness or scars, 
which are the result of fistula or poll evil. The poll and 
back of the ears should be examined for sitfasts, due to 
pressure from the bridle or halter. If the sitfast has been 
present an animal is likely to offer some resistance when 
the hand is passed over the region of the trouble. 

Ears. — The ears in a well-bred animal should be lean, 
clean, and covered with soft, fine hair. The ears should be 
freely movable, this being a good index to temperament. 



HORSES, JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES 217 

In examining them it should be noted whether small tumors 
are present. Horses in which there is little or no movement 
of the ears, are usually afflicted with deafness. 

Eyes. — The eyes should be of equal size, large, clear, free 
from tears, the pupils black, the lids thin and free from 
wrinkles. They should be equally prominent and set on the 
same level. Small eyes are known as pig eyes and generally 
indicate a sullen disposition or an animal lacking in courage. 
Exceptionally large, prominent eyes are frequently associated 
with short-sightedness. Horses which show an unusual 
amount of white in their eyes generally possess some form of 
visciousness. 

Nostrils. — The nostrils should be flexible and large enough 
to admit an ample supply of air. Small nostrils usually 
denote narrow chest, weak lungs, and, therefore, low constitu- 
tion or vitality. Nostrils which are constantly dilated are 
indicative of wind troubles. If the cartilages at the opening 
are hard, the condition usually denotes heaves. During 
exercise the movements are accelerated in proportion to the 
exertion. The color of the nostrils should be rosy pink, this 
becoming brighter with exercise. The presence of scars, 
irregular in shape and extent, or the appearance of ulcers 
show indications of glanders. Occasionally small tumors 
may be found. Openings from the teeth or from the facial 
sinusus may be the source of pus discharges. 

Teeth. — The teeth of the horse should come in direct 
opposition. If the upper teeth overhang the lower, the 
condition is known as parrot mouth. Excessive forms of 
this trouble prevent grasping of food, prevents even wearing 
of the incisors and molars, and interferes with the nutritive 
powers. The front teeth should be examined for evidence 
of cribbing. Horses addicted to this vice have the outer 
border of the teeth worn off more than the inner, thus 
leaving a distinct wedge-shaped opening between the upper 
and lower teeth. The presence of premolars or wolf teeth 
is not considered an unsoundness. They have no relation to 
the eye diseases. 

Withers. — The withers are subject to abuses from various 
sources, such as narrow stalls, tight collars or saddles. These 



218 JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES 

sometimes cause abscesses or a fistula, and even the destruc- 
tion of the ends of the bony spine. A' depression may thus be 
formed in the top of the neck or withers. A fistula may appear 
as a small, hard, swelling on one or both sides of the neck, 
near the top where the collar is placed. Running sores 
or swellings in this region should be regarded with suspicion. 

Shoulders. — The shoulders should be examined for sweeney 
or atrophy of the muscles, for tumors, collar boils, and abnor- 
mal growths. Atrophy of the muscles may be slight wherein 
some weak, counter-irritant may be used to cause temporary 
fulness. A well-marked atrophy may be filled with air for 
the temporary effect of deceiving the eye. The point of 
the shoulders should be examined for enlargement due to 
osteoporosis or articular joint disease. 

Feet. — The hoof is composed of a hardened sole and frog 
which should be elastic and tough. The wall is that part of 
the hoof which is seen when the foot is on the ground. The 
wall is divided into the toe, side, quarter and heel. The 
frog is the wedge-shaped soft horn lodged in the angle formed 
by the bars and the back of the sole. The sole is all that 
portion viewed when the foot is lifted without including the 
margin of the wall and frog. These parts are important in 
the examination. 

The feet should be examined for sand cracks, toe cracks, 
quarter cracks, and other such conditions. Examination 
should be made for the parallel rings that mark the effect 
of laminitis or founder. The presence of calk marks indi- 
cates restlessness or carelessness with which the animal 
handles himself. The heel should have good width and be 
wider at the bottom than at the top. The frog should be full, 
wedge-shaped, and firm. It is this part which becomes the 
seat of thrush or canker. The character of the shoe should 
be noted for balancing the action and preventing inter- 
ference. 

Examination in Harness. — The horse should be placed in 
harness and attention given to his behavior while the harness 
is being fitted. It should be observed whether he kicks, 
strikes or bites when the girth is tightened. The reins 
should be taken to determine whether an animal is hard or 



HORSES, JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES 219 

tender in the mouth. It should be observed whether he 
frightens at strange objects when being driven. A tight- 
fitting collar may be responsible for rejecting an animal 
which is duly qualified with proper collar adjustments. The 
wind should be tested for whistling, roaring, and heaves. 
The ear of the examiner should be put to the throat, the sides 
of the chest, and the hands placed on the flank to detect 
any unnatural sounds or conditions in breathing. 

Going Surface. 1 — The surface over which the horse steps 
has a marked influence on the character of his stride, which 
may be taken advantage of in the schooling process. As a 
general rule, heavy, soft or deep going causes a high stride, 
while a hard, smooth surface is conducive to speed. Of 
the speed horses, trotters and pacers take more kindly to the 
hard track than the runners, which do best on the turf or a 
deeply scratched dirt track. The difference in the going 
will frequently account for a horse trotting or pacing, the 
heavy or deep going causing double-gaited horses to trot, 
while a change in footing will shift them to the pace. 

The common defects and peculiarities in the way of 
going, for which any of the preceding factors may be re- 
sponsible or tend to overcome are: 

Forging. — Striking the ends of the branches or the under 
surface of the shoe of a forefoot with the toe of the hindfoot. 

Interfering. — Striking the supporting leg at the fetlock 
with the foot of the striding leg. It is a common result of 
the horse standing in the base-narrow, toe-wide or splay- 
footed position. 

Paddling. — An outward deviation in the direction of the 
stride of the foreleg, resulting from the toe-narrow or pigeon- 
toed standing position. 

Winging. — Exaggerated paddling in horses that go high, 
and, consequently, deviate more noticeably. 

Winding. — A twisting of the striding leg, around in front 
of the supporting leg, after the manner of a rope walker; 
most commonly seen at the walk in wide-fronted draft 
horses. 

1 Courtesy of C. W. Gay. 



220 JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES 

Scalping.- — Hitting the front of the hindfoot above or 
at the line of the hair against the toe of the forefoot as it 
breaks over. 

Speedy Cutting. — In which the spreading trotter at speed 
hits the hindleg above the scalping mark against the inside 
of the breaking-over forefoot as he passes. 

Cross Firing. — Essentially forging in pacers, in which the 
inside of the near forefoot and off hindfoot, or the reverse, 
strike in the air, as the stride of the hindleg is about com- 
pleted and the stride of the foreleg just begun. 

Pointing. — A stride in which extension is more marked 
than flexion, as is commonly seen in the trot of a Thorough- 
bred. Pointing also indicates the resting of one forefoot 
in an advanced position to relieve the back tendons while 
the horse is standing. 

Dwelling. — A scarcely perceptible pause in the flight of 
the foot, as though the stride had been completed before the 
foot reaches the ground, and noticeable in actors. 

Trappy. — A quick, high, but comparatively short stride. 

Pounding. — Hitting the ground hard at the conclusion of 
a high stride. 

Rolling. — Excessive side motion of the shoulders, usually 
confined to wide-fronted horses. 



CHAPTER X. 
JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE. 

EVOLUTION AND IMPORTANCE OF BEEF CATTLE 
INDUSTRY. 

The evolution of the beef cattle industry has had as its 
basis the application of better methods of breeding and 
feeding, the extent of these developments having depended 
largely on closer selection of animals for these two purposes. 
Selection involves judging, which is the nucleus of all live 
stock improvement. The improvement of the beef cattle 
industry through this agency is therefore important, both 
from the standpoint of present-day and future breeders. 
Viewed from the standpoint of the large cattle markets which 
are responsible for directing the large number of cattle 
passing through them, the importance of the industry 
becomes eminent. 

The cattle breeding industry is supported in a large meas- 
ure by the small breeder, who is responsible for the kind and 
quality of cattle placed on the markets. His knowledge of 
animal form, therefore, should be exacting. It is within his 
range of practical operations to increase form and quality to 
the utmost. Whether this is done will be determined by the 
knowledge which he acquires in properly applying these 
agencies of improvement in the herd. Figures have been 
cited where the increase of one pound on the total weight 
of every finished meat-producing animal would mean an 
increase of 172,437,403 pounds of edible meats. From this 
statement it is readily imaginable how the most modern 
methods of breeding, selection and feeding would bring a 
greatly added profit, not only to the individual, but to the 
beef cattle industry as a whole. Considered from the broad 

(221) 



222 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE 




EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 223 

viewpoint, there is still a field for improvement which is 
magnified many times, compared with the improvement 
which has been made in the past. 

Beef Cattle Products and Their Uses. — The uses of beef 
cattle products are varied. In former years, before the advent 
of modern abattoirs, practically the only parts utilized were 
the carcass proper, the hide, and certain edible parts of the 
viscera. Modern methods of killing and handling cattle 
products have made it possible to utilize almost every part 
of the carcass. This has been of special importance to the 
producer and feeder, although in an indirect way. Their 
interest lies directly in the improvement of animal form, 
which in the beef animal involves a long, broad, deep body, 
and square, full, compact quarters with the minimum of 
waste products. The more highly developed, therefore, that 
the breeder can perfect animal form, the nearer will he 
approach the ultimate demands of the feeder or finisher and 
the butcher. 

Relation of Structure to High-priced Cuts. — In perfecting 
animal form the breeder is vitally concerned with the 
development of certain parts. This development must be 
made, however, in perfect correlation with those character- 
istics which give the animal life, vigor, and thriftiness. 
The parts of a beef animal which are of greatest concern 
to the packer, the butcher and the meat eater are not 
directly concerned with the functions of life and vitality 







EXPLANATION OF FIG. 


90. 




1- 


-Mouth. 


13— Neck. 


26- 


-Scrotum or cod, 


2— 


-Nostrils. 


14 — Shoulder junction. 


27- 


-Hindflanks. 


3- 


-Face. 


15 — Top of shoulder. 


28- 


-Sides or ribs. 


4- 


-Ears. 


16— Crops. 


29- 


-Back. 


5- 


-Eyes. 


17 — Heart girth. 


30- 


-Loin. 


6- 


-Forehead. 


18 — Shoulders. 


31- 


-Loin. 


7- 


-Poll. 


19— Fore flank. 


33- 


-Thighs. 


8- 


-Horns. 


20 — Knees. 


34- 


-Rump. 


9- 


-Jaws. 


21— Shanks. 


35- 


-Tailhead. 


10- 


-Throat. 


22— Feet. 


36- 


-Twist. 


11- 


-Dewlap. 


23 — Dew claws. 


37- 


-Tail. 


12- 


-Brisket. 


24 — Belly or underline. 
25— Sheath. 


38- 


-Hocks. 



224 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE 




r 3 ^ 

to a 
S.S 

Si 



EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 225 

which govern the breeder's operations. The butcher, from 
his viewpoint, would be pleased to secure only those animals 
which possessed the largest relative proportion of the highest- 
priced cuts, providing his trade merited such selection. This 
would be dependent on conditions. The better the quality 
of the product which can be purchased on an equal-price basis, 
the better the butcher and his patrons will be satisfied. 

A beef animal must possess, however, other attributes 
aside from meat-producing qualities. It must possess con- 
stitution, capacity, early maturity, quality, and the requisites 
for prime finish. These, of necessity, call for development 
of animal form which in most cases is antagonistic to the 
production of the maximum of the highest priced cuts. There 
must be, therefore, a close and direct correlation between 
the attributes of life-giving functions and meat-producing 
qualities. The higher the attributes of beef-productive con- 
formation can be perfected without detracting from these 
life-giving functions, the nearer the perfect animal will be 
approached from the standpoint of the packer, the butcher, 
and the meat eater. 

Coordination of Bone and Muscle. — The muscular part of 
an animal and associated fat-producing qualities represent 
in the main the factors of importance in judging a beef 
animal. In order to know what lies beneath the skin, the 
examiner must have a thorough knowledge of the bony 
development in its relation to muscle and fat formation. A 



EXPLANATION OF FIG. 91. 

Skeleton of cow, showing relation of bone and muscle: I.H., atlas; 7.H., 
seventh cervical vertebra; I.R., first thoracic vertebra; 6.R., sixth rib; 12. R., 
twelfth thoracic vertebra; 13. R., last rib; I.L., first lumbar vertebra; 6.L., 
last lumbar vertebra; K, sacrum; I.S., first coccygeal vertebra; 6.K., sixth 
costal cartilage; x, wing of atlas; 1, scapula; V ', cartilage of scapula; 2, spine 
of scapula; 3, acromion; If, humerus; ty , external condyle of humerus; 5, 
external tuberosity of humerus; 6, deltoid tuberosity; 7, ulna; 8, olecranon; 
9, radius; 10, carpus; 11, accessory carpal bone; 12, metacarpus; 13, pha- 
langes; H, sternum; H', manubrium; Ik", xiphoid cartilage; 15, ilium; 
16, external angle of ilium; 16', internal angle of ilium; 17, tuber ischii; 
18, femur; 19, trochanter major; 20, patella; 21, tibia; 21', external condyle 
of tibia; 22, tarsus; 23, distal end of fibula; 2k, tuber calcis; 25, metatarsus; 
26, phalanges. (After Ellenberger-Baum, Anat. f. Kilnstler.) 
15 



226 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE 

study of the skeleton and the outline drawing will indicate 
quite vividly the relation of these parts. The head of the 
beef animal is formed largely by the bony development of 
this region. The variation from the form as examined on 
the exterior is very slight from what would be found on 
an examination of the bony framework beneath. The neck 
is just the reverse, being formed largely by the muscles con- 
stituting this part of the animal. Meat obtained from this 
region, however, has a comparatively low market value. 

The shoulders are also formed in a large measure by the 
muscles composing this part. Although meat from this 
region has a comparatively low value, it is important that 
the shoulders be smooth and compact. Rough, open, thinly 
covered shoulders are not only indicative of relatively 
low muscle formation, but they are otherwise indicative 
of coarse quality and a low dressing percentage. The body 
proper is outlined largely by the rib development. This is 
especially true in that part which is taken off with the fore- 
quarter in carcass beef, this including all except the last rib, 
which is usually left on the hindquarter. The hindquarters 
of the beef animal contain a relatively large proportion of 
the high-priced cuts because there is a relatively large pro- 
portion of muscle to bone and the quality of the product is 
superior to that in any other region. The region of the loin, 
prime ribs, and thighs or round are especially valuable from 
the market standpoint because of these factors. A clear 
knowledge of this condition is, therefore, necessary to have 
a broad understanding of the value of the carcass cuts and 
the qualities or characteristics which indicate them in the 
live animal. 

Conformation. — The desired conformation of the beef 
animal should be self-evident after the former consideration 
of the main attributes which give value to the correlated 
parts of the structure. The body should be long, wide, 
deep, and low set. The back should be broad, thus desig- 
nating the shape and turn of the ribs, which should be square, 
and extend low to give depth of body. The coupling should 
be short, the loin broad and deep, and the flank low. There 
should be in a!l the close, compact condition which is 



EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 227 

evidenced by the smooth, compact, even finish character- 
istic of an animal best suited to market demands. 

The head should be broad, long, and clearly outlined, 
the muzzle large, and the eyes clear and prominent. The 
neck should be short and compact and should blend evenly 
into the head and shoulders. The width of the animal 
should be uniformly developed 'from the forequarters to 
the buttocks. The thighs should be broad and thick, the 
quarters well filled, and the twist full and low. 




Fig. 92. — Fat steer, illustrating thick-fleshing characteristics, quality 
and finish. 



The most valuable cuts in the beef animal are taken from 
the loin, ribs, and thighs. This makes it necessary to empha- 
size the development of an animal in these regions. Coarse- 
ness about the head, neck, and forequarters is objectionable, 
as it still further reduces the value of the already cheapest 
cuts, and, in addition, the value of the best cuts, because 
of the close association with the value of these parts. 
Such a condition usually has associated with it a narrow 
back and loin, rough, undeveloped quarters, high flanks, 
shallow body, and lack of natural flesh in general. The 



228 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE 

final disposition of the beef animal is on the block, where 
the crucial test is made. Lack of development in the parts 
mentioned cannot fail to escape the eye of the butcher who 
pronounces final judgment and who therefore signifies the 
value of animals, this being based directly on their general 
conformation as above described. 

Fleshing Qualities. — In judging cattle it is not possible to 
have too much natural flesh, meaning lean meat, providing 
it is properly distributed. This is largely a factor which is 
transmitted in the animal and should therefore be a guide 
in selecting a breeding animal, as well as a block animal, 
from which the most desirable returns are anticipated. A 
clear distinction should be made between a wealth of natural 
flesh and a soft, flabby covering which accumulates with 
high feeding and excessive condition. In examining an 
animal in the show ring the judge should search for those 
points which will enable him to determine between fat 
accumulation and natural flesh development. Patchiness, 
soft, flabby flesh, rolls and ties, are very objectionable, 
indicating lack of quality and the general smoothness 
desired. These points are significant both in the breeding 
animal and the feeder, as in the former such undesirable 
qualities are transmitted and in the latter they are seriously 
objectionable on the block. An animal either in high or low 
flesh should show a straight, even contour and be firm and 
uniformly covered with flesh and fat. 

Quality. — The flesh of the beef animal is one of the most 
important products which enters into the trade for human 
consumption. While a large percentage of the slaughtered 
beef, especially that utilized on local markets, represents 
the products from the lower grades of cattle, there are 
other important markets to be supplied wherein the standard 
of quality is an important consideration. This attribute 
is essential, not only in the production of a better quality 
of meat to satisfy the demands of the trade, but it is signifi- 
cant of a generally higher price level for those producing it. 
A clear-cut, refined animal possesses important attributes 
which signify the presence of this characteristic. 

The head should show clear-cut character, clean facial out- 



EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 229 

lines, and a general expression of intelligence and thriftiness. 
The bone should be smooth, hard, and dense, the skin of 
medium thickness, pliable, and of a healthy color, and the 
hair fine, straight, and uniformly covering the body. The 
shoulder development is important, as roughness, openness 
or coarseness are indicative of lack in general refinement and, 
therefore, quality characterization. Large bone, undefined 
joints and a coarse-textured horn, are likewise indicative of 




Fig. 93.- 



-Feeder steer ill-shaped and lacking in natural flesh. 
(Photograph by author.) 



inferior quality. The presence or absence of these character- 
istics in general determines the degree of quality or general 
refinement which an animal possesses. A close, compact, 
symmetrical development throughout, which condition is 
indicated by head and facial development, bone formation, 
and the condition of the skin and hair, is indicative of an 
animal qualified to fulfill the requirements of the breeder, 
feeder, or the butcher. 

Constitution. — Indications of constitution are not only im- 
portant to the breeder because of hereditary qualifications, 



230 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE 

but also to the feeder in preparing an animal for market. It 
has been mentioned that there are certain portions of the 
animal which are equally important from the viewpoint of 
the producer, the feeder, and the butcher. Constitution is 
one of these attributes which must be possessed not only 
to reproduce strong, thrifty, individuals, but also to 
render the feeding animal of greater significance in the 
process of market preparation. Weak constitution and 
low vitality are the bane of both the breeder and the 
feeder. 

The indications of constitution are significant in the 
head and chest development. The head should be strong, 
clean and impressive, the nostrils large and open, the muzzle 
large and broad, the forehead broad and the chest full and 
deep. This insures a large girth measurement within which 
the vital organs have ample opportunity to perform their 
normal functions. If for any reason the natural process 
of these organs is interfered with it results in low vitality. 
Such a condition is especially marked about the head. The 
eyes become dull and sunken, the skin dry and harsh, and 
the hair deficient in the normal amount of secretion. There 
is a characteristic appearance in any animal possessing 
strong constitutional development. Animals possessing these 
attributes have strong, vigorous bodies, thus insuring a 
robust animal capable of reproducing or finishing for the 
block in a most satisfactory manner. 

Nervous Development. — The evidences of nerve develop- 
ment are very strikingly portrayed in comparing the beef 
and dairy animal. The former usually maintains a quiet, 
satisfied attitude regardless of environment. The beef 
animal is thus described as being lymphatic or comparatively 
low in nerve force or nerve development. In the dairy 
animal there is an alertness and activity very different from 
that exemplified in the beef animal. A highly developed, 
nervous organization portrays activity such as that mani- 
fested by the dairy animal in utilizing the feed to the best 
advantage for milk-productive purposes. The beef animal, 
on the contrary, having a low nervous development uses the 
food for storing fat on the body. The two conditions are 



EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 231 

strikingly significant of what animals will do when placed in 
their respective conditions for work. 

Weight and Maturity. — From the standpoint of the breeder, 
a beef animal matures when three years of age. However, 
the same animal may be matured when from twelve months 
or thereabout to two years of age from the standpoint of the 
feeder and market requirements. Animals finished at the 
former age or somewhat older, go on the market as baby beef. 
This is a very desirable method of finishing these animals, 
especially if the dealer caters to a fancy trade. Whether 
this is a wise practice is dependent on the feeder and his 
markets largely. While this is a problem which does not 
concern the judge of animal form, it is important to have 
a clear understanding of the attributes of early maturity 
in animals used in the various fields of the breeder, the 
feeder, and the packer. From the standpoint of the breeder 
proper, maturity has reference to the time when an animal 
attains its normal weight and development. This is largely 
a matter of age, methods of maintenance, and care and 
handling, problems which do not affect the consumer of 
the product. 

One of the important requisites of a beef animal is that 
they show in their structural make-up an inclination to 
develop rapidly and mature at an early age. This is im- 
portant, either in the breeding or feeding animal. Weight 
for age in either case is important. Late-maturing qualities 
are very objectionable and should be bred out by the selec- 
tion of animals having an inclination to develop their normal 
size at an early period in life. Evidences of this character- 
itsic are indicated in a broad, deep muzzle, a wide, intelligent 
head, a bright, placid eye, a deep, broad, chest; a square, 
compact body; full hindquarters with compactness, sym- 
metry, and correlation of parts throughout. The reverse 
of these conditions is indicative of late maturity, a con- 
dition which not only makes the growing of beef cattle 
unprofitable but hinders as well the production of the 
highest class of beef products. Normal development at an 
early age is not only important to the breeder, but to the 
feeder, and indirectly to the consumer, as these character- 



232 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE 




EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 233 

istics indicate quality in carcass beef. Animals produced 
with these attainments will not only be more profitable to 
the producer and feeder, but more satisfactory to the trade. 

Capacity. — The usefulness of a beef animal is measured 
by its power to consume feed and convert it into the proper 
material for body maintenance and development. The 
breeding animal should have capacity as applied both to 
reproduction and body development. This condition, there- 
fore, should be doubly emphasized in such animals. The 
capacity is dependent largely on the body development, 
the blood supply, and the health and vigor manifested. A 
narrow, shallow-bodied animal or one with an insufficient 
blood supply cannot be healthy and vigorous, and conse- 
quently cannot have the capacity for consuming and manu- 
facturing feed into the ultimate material needed for body 
growth and development. Capacity is quite closely correlated 
with constitution and the general conformation of the animal. 
The one condition should be indicative of the other. Lack 
of capacity is usually associated with lack of constitution 
and reproductive development. Its application is far-reach- 
ing in studying animals from these two viewpoints. 

Condition. — Condition is significant of the quantity of fat 
deposited in the muscular tissues and over the body of 
an animal. While breeding stock is frequently placed in 
high condition for the show ring it is generally recognized 
that when a breeding herd is maintained in moderate con- 
dition the results are more satisfactory. Market animals, 
however, should be fitted in high condition, although many 
of them are marketed without having acquired sufficient 
fat to make them sell most advantageously. A good quality 
of meat is obtained only when the fat is properly interspersed 
through the muscular tissues and over the outside of the 
carcass. Animals may be overfinished, however, which 
detracts greatly from their value. This condition is more 
frequently met with in the show ring. 

The indications of finish or condition are quite numerous; 
however, there are certain fixed attributes which are indicative 
of this qualification. A finished animal has a round, smooth, 
plump body in contradistinction to the thin body, showing a 



234 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE 



decided lack of muscle and fat development. The most char- 
acteristic specific indications are a fulness at the tongue root, 
a well-filled shoulder vein, a low and well-filled flank, and a 
firm/jwell-filled cod or purse. 




Fig. 95. — Showing a beef carcass from the viewpoint of the butcher. 
(Courtesy Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station.) 

Dressing Percentages.— The dressing percentage of carcass 
beef varies from 45 to 65 per cent. Animals occasionally 
dress as high as 70 per cent, or over. Such animals, however, 



EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 235 

are the result of exceptionally high fitting which does not 
always involve a profitable transaction. The dressing per- 
centage of an animal varies with the type, age, conformation, 
quality, and finish or condition. 

Considerable stress should be placed on the probable out- 
come of an animal on the block. However, high finish does 
not always indicate that an animal will be profitable from the 
block standpoint. This is dependent on the ultimate dress- 
ing percentage. An animal to dress well should be square, 
low set, deep, broad in the body, compact and smooth, 
with a relatively large amount of the weight placed in the 
regions which sell for the highest market price. A good 
feeding animal should have capacity, yet with all it should 
be trim and free from excess offal. A heavy-shouldered 
animal, low in the back, and inclined to be paunchy will not 
dress a high percentage. Such a condition is usually indica- 
tive of flat ribs, a large paunch, and excess weight in the waste 
or cheap parts. Animals making the highest dressing per- 
centage conform to the block or rectangular, low set, broad, 
arched rib, deep-bodied sort. 

Marbling of Meat.— The marbling of meat is indicative 
of the interspersion of fat between the muscular tissues. 



EXPANATION OF FIG. 95. 

1, 2, 3— Round. 9— Flank. 

4, 5, 6— Loin. 10, 11— Plate. 

7 Rib 12 — Shank. 

8— Chuck. 13— Suet. 

1— Hind shank. 6— Pinbone loin. 

2— Round, R and S, off. 5, 6— Flatbone loin. 

3— Rump. 10— Navel. 

4, 5— Loin end. 11— Brisket. 

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9 — Hindquarters. 
7, 8, 10, 11, 12 — Forequarter. 
7, 8 — Back. 
7, 10 — Piece. 
S, 11, 12 — Kosher chuck. 
8, 10, 11, 12— Triangle. 

a _Aitch-bone. e— Chine-bones. 

b— Rump-bone /—"Buttons. 

c _Crotch. ff — Skirt. 

^ q oc j h — Breast-bone. 



236 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE 

This condition is reached when an animal is properly finished 
for the block. While one animal or one breed may marble 




Fig. 96. — Porterhouse cut, showing marbling and desirable amount of 
fat covering. 




Fig. 97. — Prime or standing rib, including portion between loin and chuck 



better than another, the condition is necessary to give meat 
its best quality. In conjunction with the marbling there 



EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 237 



should be a uniform pad of fat over the outside of the body 
to protect the meat and retain its succulence when in the 
dressed-carcass condition. It requires in addition a certain 
amount of fatty tissue to add succulence and flavor to meat. 







AW/? QUARTER 




/ / 


RouA>n 




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Rump 




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1 Rump 


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£ Round slcok, firs/ cur. 




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3-/3 Round steoks. 


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14 Round sfcQk, /ay/ cut. 


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17. /8 Soup bones 


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Loin 

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roRE QUARTER 


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• RETAIL 


CUTS ■ OF- BEEF "• 



Fig. 98. — Retail cuts of beef. (Couitesy Illinois Agricultural Experiment 

Station.) 

Percentage of Different Cuts of Beef. — Judging a beef 
animal accurately for a given purpose necessitates a knowl- 
edge of the location and relation of the various regions of the 
animal. These regions are defined by certain rather uni- 



238 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE 

versal market terms which are designated in the following 
tables. While the way in which a carcass is cut may influence 
the value of the various market cuts, the value of the sum 
total will not be materially altered. Most every large city 
has its method of cutting a beef carcass for wholesale and 
retail purposes. 

The following table is a record of results obtained from a 
cutting test and shows the percentage of "Chicago cut" 
meat with square-cut chucks. This shows the different cuts 
which are obtained from a carcass and the proportionate 
amount of each obtained, based on the total weight: 

Cuts. Per cent. 

Chucks 28.00 

Rounds : 23.00 

Navel 8.00 

Flanks 2.00 

Flank steaks .... .50 

Kidney .25 

Ribs * 10.00 

Loins 15.00 

No. 2 suet .50 

No. 1 suet 3.00 

Shanks 4.00 ■ 

Brisket 5.00 

Necks .75 

Total 100.00 

It is thus seen from this table that the two most valuable 
parts, the loins and ribs, constitute only one-fourth of the 
total weight of the carcass. The rounds and chucks each 
constitute approximately one-fourth the total weight of 
the carcass, leaving the other one-fourth to be distributed 
among the lowest priced cuts which include the navel, 
flanks, shanks, neck, and brisket. 

The following table shows in a more condensed form the 
percentage of the parts of the beef animal grouped more 
nearly according to their market value. This table is 
representative of the cuts made Philadelphia style: 

Cuts. Per cent. 

Rump and round 34 . 00 

Rattler (Chuck, plate, brisket and shank) 44.00 

Ribs and loins 22.00 

Total 100.00 



EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 239 




Fig. 99. — Sirloin or loin end. 




Fig. 100. — Round representing the principal thigh cut. 



240 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE 

This grouping represents three rather distinct portions of 
the beef animal. The rattler which includes the chuck, plate, 
brisket, and shank, includes the cheaper and less desirable 




Fig. 101. — Chuck cut taken off between fifth and sixth ribs. (Photograph 
by author.) 

parts of the animal. The rump and round, combined 
constitute about one-third the total weight, while the ribs 
and loins combined constitute slightly less than one-fourth 



EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 241 



of the total weight. It is thus seen that the proportionate 
amounts of the parts designated in the two tables vary 
somewhat with the method of making the cuts. Based on 
the universal practice of cutting meat, the former table 
represents more nearly the usual method of preparing or 
cutting the beef animal for block-distribution purposes. 

Determination of Age. — Like the horse, the age of cattle 
can be determined by observing the eruption and appearance 
of the milk and permanent incisor teeth. While the age 
can thus be determined very satisfactorily, it is only in rather 
exceptional instances that the teeth are used as an index in 
arriving at the age attained. The teeth of cattle are some- 




Fig. 102. — Chucks, showing some of the cheaper cuts of beef. 
(Photograph by author.) 

what different from those of the horse, as the incisors, eight 
in number, appear only in the lower jaw. The teeth are 
not firmly imbedded in the jaw as in the horse, but are rather 
set in cartilage, so as to allow of rather free movement. 
As the teeth are not opposed by incisors in the upper jaw, 
this is necessary. Instead of having teeth in the upper jaw, 
it is provided with a pad or cushion for crushing the feed 
when opposed by the incisors in the lower jaw. 

The two sets of incisor teeth appear in cattle in the follow r - 
ing order, and it is by this eruption and appearance that the 
age may be determined up to about the ten -year stage. 
At birth the calf usually has four incisors, the third pair 
appearing about the tenth or twelfth day, and the corner 
pair from the latter time up to the thirtieth day or there- 
16 



242 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE 

abouts. The permanent central incisors appear from eigh- 
teen to twenty months, the first intermediates at twenty-four 
to thirty months, the second intermediates at thirty-six 
to forty-two months, and the corners from forty-five to 
fifty-four months. These are designated as the one, two, 
three, and four-year stages. 

At five years the central incisors have begun to wear and 
at six years they are worn level. At this stage both pairs 
of the intermediates are partly worn and the corners have 
commenced to wear. At seven years the first pair of inter- 
mediates is worn completely and the second pair is worn 
considerably. When the eight-year stage is reached the 
tables of all the teeth are worn level and a concavity appears 
in the central incisors. At nine years this concavity appears 
in the first intermediates and at ten years in the second 
intermediates. 

From this stage the age may be determined by the general 
condition of the animal, by the general alterations which 
occur in the teeth, or by the horns as described in the fol- 
lowing paragraph : 

Indication of Age by Horns. — The age of cattle possessing 
horns may be determined by the rings which appear at the 
base. The first ring appears at about three years of age. 
Each year a new ring develops, thus indicating the age by 
adding two to the number of rings which are in evidence. 
One ring, for example, indicates a three-year-old and two 
rings a four-year-old animal. 

Structural Form and Examination. — The following attri- 
butes of form are of special significance in determining the 
qualifications of beef-producing animals. These apply 
with equal significance to both breeding and fat animals, 
with the exception of the sex characteristics, which should 
be developed in the former. 

Head. — The head of the beef animal should be broad, 
deep, and have length in proportion, this being a good 
indication of thriftiness and feeding capacity. There should 
be good width between the eyes, thus showing intelligence. 
The angle of the jaw should be wide to allow free respira- 
tory action. The head should be neat, trim, and the general 



EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 243 

expression should indicate intelligence. A well-formed head 
is indicative of various attributes such as quality, feeding 
capacity, intelligence, breed type, and general refinement. 

Eyes.- — The eyes should be large, clear, and bright, this 
being a good indication of constitution, healthfulness, and 
breeding capacity. A small, sunken eye indicates low vitality 
and possibly disease. 

• Ears. — The ears should be medium in size and covered 
with fine, mossy hair. A medium-sized ear with fine, silky 
hair is indicative of quality, the opposite condition showing 
coarseness and lack of refinement. 

Horns. — In horned breeds the horns should be fine in texture 
and free from a rough, dry, scaly condition. 

Poll. — The width of the poll is dependent upon the natural 
presence or absence of horns. In polled breeds there is a ten- 
dency for the poll to assume a comparatively narrow, pointed 
condition. 

Muzzle. — The muzzle should be broad and deep, as the 
size of it is indicative of constitution and capacity. A 
small, pointed muz'zle is characteristic of an animal with 
low vitality and faulty breeding or feeding qualities. The 
nostrils should be large and open. The muzzle should 
broaden toward the extremity, such a condition indicating 
strong, vigorous breeding and feeding capacity. 

Neck. — The neck should be short, broad, deep, and 
blend evenly and smoothly into the shoulders. Coarseness 
indicated by the presence of loose folds about the neck, 
dewlap or brisket is very objectionable. Unnecessary 
appendages of this character decrease the dressing per- 
centage. The junction of the neck with the head should 
be smooth, the throat-latch being free from loose folds 
of skin. The junction at the neck should show smooth- 
ness and refinement. The crest should be absent in the 
female. 

Forequarters. — The forequarters include the shoulders, 
shoulder vein, brisket, feet, and legs. The shoulders should 
be broad, smooth, and evenly laid in, there being no tendency 
to openness or a light-fleshing quality. Undue prominence 
of the shoulder-blades and the resulting open formation indi- 



244 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE 

cate coarseness of quality. The smoothness and compactness 
of the top of the shoulder should likewise characterize the 
sides of same. The shoulders should blend evenly into the 
body proper, there being no tendency to depressions in the 
crops or flanks. 

Shoulder Vein. — The shoulder vein should be full, thus 
giving smoothness of neck and shoulder development. 

Brisket. — The brisket should be trim and neat, extending 
forward sufficiently to give the animal proper conformation, 
although this should not be extreme. 

Legs. — The legs should be short, straight, and strong, with 
dense, hard bone, this condition indicating quality. They 
should set well apart and directly under the body. If they 
are set too close together it is indicative of a narrow chest 
and thus weak constitution and vitality. The feet should 
be medium in size, and the animal should stand well up on 
the toes. 

Body. — The body proper includes the chest, back, ribs, 
loin, underline, and flanks. The chest should be broad, deep, 
and full. There is a marked difference in the chest of the 
beef and the dairy animal. In the former, the width should 
be the same through the crops and in the flank region, the 
latter having an angular formation at the top, thus necessi- 
tating greater width on the floor to obtain the desired chest 
capacity. There should be no depression whatever back of 
the shoulders. Full conformation in this region gives the beef 
animal the most desirable attainments, from the butcher's 
standpoint. A high flank is objectionable. Any noticeable 
decrease in the body in the chest or flank region is indicative 
either of low vitality or undesirable feeding qualities. 

The value of a breeding or feeding animal is influenced 
largely by the development of the back because of the 
relatively large proportion of high-priced cuts coming from 
it. It should be straight, broad, and uniformly carried out 
from the shoulders to the hindquarters. The amount and 
character of natural flesh is important. The back should 
be characterized by smooth, firm, uniform covering through- 
out. A low, weak back is objectionable, as such a condition 
is associated with a lack of form and symmetry in general 



EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 245 

and otherwise indicates a low dressing percentage. Often 
an animal so characterized is paunchy, this condition being 
doubly antagonistic to beef-productive capacity. 

The ribs should be long, arched, and thickly and smoothly 
fleshed. They should be well sprung, coming squarely 
from the back bone and extend low to give depth of body 
and its accompanying capacity. Flat ribs are very objection- 
able, usually being associated with animals of low vitality 
and unthriftiness. 

The loin contains the highest-priced cuts of the beef 
carcass. It should be broad, long, level, and thickly fleshed, 
thus giving the largest proportionate amount of meat from 
this region. 

The underline should be straight, trim, and parallel with 
the top line. The flanks should be full, even, and extend low. 

Hindquarters. — The hindquarters include the hips, rump, 
thighs, twist, and legs. The hips should be broad, smooth, 
and level. The rump should be long, wide, the tail head 
smooth and level, and the pin-bones wide apart. The animal 
should be smooth and firm throughout this region. The 
thighs should be broad, deep, and full, carrying well down 
to the hocks. Long, narrow, incurving thighs in the beef 
animal are seriously objectionable. Such an animal should 
possess just the opposite condition, being fully developed 
from every viewpoint. The twist should be deep and full. A 
high twist is indicative of inferior fleshing qualities. A short 
hindquarter with a drooping rump, and rough, prominent 
development otherwise is extremely objectionable. 

The legs should be wide apart, straight, short, and the 
shanks fine and smooth. The bone should possess quality, 
as indicated by density and texture. The feet should be 
of medium size, well shaped, and the animal should stand 
well up on the toes. 



246 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE 

Score Card for Beef Cattle. 

General Appearance — 40 Points. Perfect score. 

Weight: score according to age 6 

Form: straight topline and underline; deep, broad, low set, 

stylish 10 

Quality: firm handling, hair fine; pliable skin; dense bone; 

evenly fleshed 10 

Condition: deep, even covering of firm flesh, especially in 

regions of valuable cuts 10 

Temperament: lymphatic, inclined to fatten 4 

Head and Neck — 7 Points. 

Muzzle: broad; mouth large; jaw wide; nostrils large 

Eyes: large, clear, placid 

Face: short, quiet expression 

Forehead: broad, full 

Ears: medium size, fine texture ........ 

Horns: fine texture, oval, medium size . . . ... 

Neck: thick, short; throat clean 

FOREQTJARTERS 8 Points. 

Shoulder vein: full 2 

Shoulder: covered with flesh, compact on top, smooth . . 2 

Brisket: advanced, breast wide 1 

Dewlap: skin not too loose and drooping 1 

Legs: straight, short; arm full; shank fine, smooth ... 2 

Body— 32 Points. 

Chest: full, deep, wide; girth large; crops full 4 

Ribs: long, arched, thickly fleshed ' 8 

Back: broad, straight, smooth, even 10 

Loin: thick, broad 8 

Flank: full, even with underline 2 

Hindquarters — 13 Points. 

Hips: smoothly covered; distance apart in proportion with 

other parts 2 

Rump: long, wide, even, tail head smooth, not patchy . . 2 

Pin-bones: not prominent, far apart 1 

Thighs: full, deep, wide 2 

Twist: deep, plump 2 

Purse: full, indicating fleshiness 2 

Legs: straight, short, shank fine, smooth 2 

Total 100 

Breed Characteristics. — The several breeds of beef and 
dual purpose cattle are all characterized by rather significant 
marks of size, color, form, and adaptation. The most 
significant points are described in the following: 

Shorthorn. — The Shorthorn breed of cattle originated in 
the counties of York, Durham, and Northumberland, Eng- 
land. The breed is one of the most interesting historically 
of any of the beef breeds. The breed is characterized by 



EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 247 

three distinct colors, red, white, and roan. Specimens of the 
breed may be solid red, solid white, or a combination of 
the two, forming large red-and-white body colors, the former 
predominating, or an intermingling of these two colors, thus 
giving the characteristic roan. The shades of roan vary 
from light to dark. The weight of mature males ranges 
from 1800 to 2200 pounds on the average, although these 
weights are often exceeded. The horns are comparatively 
short, usually curving forward and slightly downward. The 
conformation of the animal adheres closely to the beef type, 




Fig. 103. — Shorthorn bull. 

although there are two rather sharply defined types. The 
Scotch type of Shorthorn conforms closest to the beef type, 
the Bates type representing an animal of both beef and milk- 
producing qualities. The Shorthorn ranks high in quality, 
and docility, and "nicks" well with common cattle. The 
breed is adapted especially to rich pasture lands, although it 
has a wide adaptation. The breed shows unusual refinement 
and breed character. 

Polled Durham. — The Polled Durham breed of cattle 
is designated as single or double standard, according to 
origin. The aim is to breed in them all of the characteris- 
tics of Shorthorns excepting the horns. The head is the 



248 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE 

same as that of the Shorthorn except the poll, which is gently 
rounded at the crown. The single standard Shorthorn was 
the first type of hornless Shorthorn in America. The breed 
is the result of crossing pure-bred Shorthorn bulls on native 
cows of hornless character. Animals bred in this way are 
eligible for registration only in the Polled Durham Herd- 
book. Cattle of this breeding, while having Shorthorn char- 
acteristics, do not possess strong Shorthorn qualifications. 

Double Standard Polled Durhams are descendants from 
the cow, Oakwood Gwynne the Fourth, which was a regis- 




Fig. 104.— Polled Durham bull. 

tered Shorthorn cow. This cow was practically polled and 
when bred to Seventh Duke of Hillhurst, produced twin 
female calves with polled heads. Animals descended from 
this origin are known as double standard, as they are eligible 
to registration, both in the Polled Durham Herdbook and 
the American Shorthorn Herdbook. Animals of the Polled 
Durham breed should have the color and other character- 
istics of the Shorthorn breed. While not bred to as high 
state of perfection as the breed from which they descended, 
some excellent individuals have been produced, showing the 
true polled character. 



EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 249 

Aberdeen- Angus. — The Aberdeen- Angus breed originated 
in Scotland in the counties of Aberdeen, Kincardine, and 
Forfar. The breed is characterized by the absence of horns 
and a solid black color, with slight exceptions as given in the 
standard of excellence. The weight of the males ranges 
from 1700 to 2000 pounds on an average, many indi- 
viduals exceeding this weight. In general conformation the 
breed is quite typical of the characteristics of the beef ani- 
mal. The form is inclined to be more cylindrical than in the 
Shorthorn or Hereford. In quality and dressing percentages 
the breed ranks high, having obtained numerous prizes, 



Fig. 105 — Aberdeen-Angus bull. 

both on foot and on the block for the possession of these 
qualifications. The form is compact, low set, and animals 
of the breed are characterized by a strong, vigorous con- 
stitution. The breed ranks only fair in milking qualities, 
not comparing favorably with the Shorthorn in this respect. 
The possession of the unusually well-developed beef-produc- 
ing qualities has been antagonistic to this end. In character 
and general refinement the breed ranks high. The disposition 
is inclined to be nervous. The body of the Aberdeen- 
Angus has unusual depth, and the breed as a whole possesses 
unusually early maturing qualities. 



250 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE 

Standard of Excellence and Scale of Points for Aberdeen- 
Angus Cattle. 

Bull. „ . 

Points. 

Color. — Black. White is objectionable, except on the under- 
line behind the navel, and there only to a moderate extent; a 
white scrotum is most undesirable 3 

Head. — Forehead broad; face slightly prominent, and tapering 
toward the nose; muzzle fine; nostrils wide and open; distance 
from eyes to nostrils of moderate length; eyes mild, full and 
expressive, indicative of good disposition; ears of good medium 
size, well set and well covered with hair; poll well defined, and 
without any appearance of horns or scurs; jaws clean ... 10 

Throat. — Clean,without any development of loose flesh underneath 3 

Neck. — Of medium length, muscular, with moderate chest (which 
increases with age), spreading out to meet the shoulders, with 
full neck vein 3 

Shoulders. — Moderately oblique, well covered on the. blades 
and top, with vertebra? or backbone slightly above the scapula 
or shoulder-blades, which should be moderately broad ... 6 

Chest. — Wide and deep; also round and full just back of elbows 10 

Brisket. — Deep and moderately projecting from between the legs, 
and proportionately covered with flesh and fat 4 

Ribs. — Well sprung from the backbone, arched and deep, neatly 
joined to the crops and loins 8 

Back. — Broad and straight from crops to hooks; loins strong; 
hook-bones moderate in width, not prominent, and well covered ; 
rumps long, full, level, and rounded neatly into hindquarters . 10 

Hindquarters. — Deep and full; thighs thick and muscular, and 
in proportion to hindquarters; twist filled out well in its "seam" 
so as to form an even, wide plane between thighs .... 8 

Tail. — Fine, coming neatly out of the body on a line with the back 
and hanging at right angles to it 3 

Underline. — Straight as nearly as possible; flank deep and full 4 

Legs. — Short, straight, and squarely placed; hindlegs slightly 
inclined forward below the hocks; forearms muscular; bones 
fine and clean 4 

Flesh. — Even and without patchiness 4 

Skin. — Of moderate thickness and mellow touch, abundantly 
covered with thick, soft hair. (Much of the thriftiness, feeding 
properties, and value of the animal depends upon this quality, 
which is of great weight in the grazier's and butcher's judg- 
ment. A good "touch" will compensate for some deficiencies of 
form. Nothing can compensate for a skin hard and stiff. In 
raising the skin from the body it should have a substantial, soft, 
flexible feeling, and when beneath the outspread hand it should 
move easily as though resting on a soft, cellular substance, 
which, however, becomes firmer as the animal ripens. A thin, 
papery skin is objectionable, especially in a cold climate) . 10 

General Appearance. — Elegant, well bred and masculine. The 
walk square, the step quick, and the head up 10 

Perfection • . 100 

When bulls are exhibited with their progeny in a separate class, 
add 25 counts for progeny. 



EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 251 

Cow. 

Points. 

Color. — Black. White is objectionable, except on the underline 
behind the navel, and there only to a moderate extent ... 2 

Head. — Forehead moderately broad, and slightly indented; 
tapering toward the nose; muzzle fine; nostrils wide and open; 
distance from eyes to nostrils of moderate length; eyes full, 
bright and expressive, indicative of good disposition; ears 
large, slightly rising upward, and well furnished with hair; 
poll well defined, and without any appearance of horns or scurs; 
jaw clean 10 

Throat. — Clean, without any development of loose flesh under- 
neath 3 

Neck.— Of medium length, spreading out to meet the shoulders, 
with full neck vein 3 

Shoulders. — Moderately oblique, well covered on the blades 
and top, with vertebrae or backbone slightly above the scapula 
or shoulder-blades, which should be moderately broad . . 6 

Chest. — Wide and deep; also round and full just back of elbows. 10 

Brisket. — Deep and moderately projecting from between the 
legs and proportionately covered with flesh and fat . . . . 4 

Ribs. — Well sprung from the backbone, arched and deep, neatly 
joined to the crops and loins 8 

Back. — Broad and straight from crops to hooks; loins strong; 
hook-bones moderate in width, not prominent, and well covered; 
rumps long, full, level, and rounded neatly into hindquarters . 10 

Hindquarters. — Deep and full; thighs thick and muscular, and 
in proportion to hindquarters; twist filled out well in its "seam" 
so as to form an even plane between thighs ...... 8 

Tail. — Fine, coming neatly out of the body on a line with the 
back and hanging at right angles to it 3 

Udder. — Not fleshy, coming well forward in line with the body, and 
well up behind ; teats squarely placed, well apart and of good size 8 

Underline. — Straight as nearly as possible; flank deep and full 4 

Legs. — Short, straight, and squarely placed; hindlegs slightly 
inclined forward below the hocks; forearms muscular; bones 
fine and clean 3 

Flesh. — Even and without patchiness 3 

Skin. — Of moderate thickness and mellow touch, abundantly 
covered with thick, soft hair. (Much of the thriftiness, feed- 
ing properties, and value of the animal depends upon this 
quality, which is of great weight in the grazier's and butcher's 
judgment. A good "touch" will compensate for some defi- 
ciencies of form. Nothing can compensate for a skin hard and 
stiff. In raising the skin from the body it should have a sub- 
stantial, soft, flexible feeling, and when beneath the outspread 
hand it should move easily as though resting on a soft, cellular 
substance which, however, becomes firmer as the animal ripens. 
A thin, papery skin is objectionable, especially in a cold climate) 10 

General Appearance. — Elegant, well bred, and feminine. The 
walk square, the step quick, and the head up ....'. 5 

Perfection 100 

In judging heifers, omit No. 12 and add 3 counts to No. 15 and 5 
counts to No. 17. 



252 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE 

Hereford.— The Hereford breed is characterized by an 
unusually striking combination of colors. The body proper 
is red; the head, top of neck, shoulders, over the crops, 
lower part of the neck, brisket, floor of the body, the feet, 
legs and switch are more or less characterized by white. 
This varies somewhat. A medium shade of red is most 
desirable, light colors being objectionable. The general ten- 
dency is toward these marks, however, the principal variation 
in color is in the regions mentioned other than the head. 
This is one of the largest of the beef breeds, the weight of 




Fig. 106.— Hereford bull. 



males being from 1800 to 2400 pounds. The breed ranks 
high as a meat producer, although there is some tendency 
to lack of development in the hindquarters especially. In 
milk production it is average. Herefords graze well on 
rather sparse pasture and in this respect they are superior 
to most of the other recognized beef breeds. The head of 
the Hereford is square and broad, showing marked character 
and refinement. The horns are fine, waxy, rather prominent, 
and add much to the natural beauty of the breed. The 
disposition of the Hereford is more nervous than the Short- 
horn and less so than the Aberdeen- Angus. The quality is 
usually superior, as shown in the condition of the hide, hair, 



EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 253 

and bone development. The constitution and vigor of the 
Hereford is a significant characteristic of the breed with- 
standing the changes of climate on the range to a remarkable 
degree. 

Standard of Excellence and Scale op Points for Hereford 

Cattle. 

Points. 

Color. — Medium, deep, rich red, with white head, breast, belly, 
crest, switch, and ankles 5 

Head. — Forehead broad and prominent, face short, slightly 
tapering toward nose; muzzle full; nostrils wide and open; 
eyes large and expressive; ears of medium size, well set and well 
covered with hair; horns of medium size; even color, coming 
from head at right angles, set on level with crop, back and tail 
head, curving forward and downward 8 

Throat. — Clean, without any excessive development of loose flesh 
or fat underneath 2 

Neck. — Short, neat, spreading out to meet shoulders, with full 
neck vein, free from loose sldn. (Males: neck muscular, with 
full crest, according to age) 2 

Shoulders. — Straight, round, full, smooth and well covered; top 
of shoulder-blades slightly below vertebrae, good width on top . 6 

Chest. — Wide, deep, round and full just back of shoulders . . 6 

Brisket. — Deep and wide, moderately projecting, free from flabbi- 
ness 2 

Ribs. — Well sprung from backbone, close together, long and 
arched, carrying the full width of shoulders and deeply and 
smoothly covered S 

Back and Loin. — Broad, straight and heavily covered from 
crops to hooks, hooks moderately wide and well covered . . 10 

Rump. — Long, wide, smooth and well covered, carrying width in 
proportion to width of back and hooks, joining smoothly into 
quarters 5 

Quarters. — Long, straight, muscular, full, deep and thick . . 4 

Thigh and Twist. — Full and thick, carried well down to hocks . 3 

Tail. — Tail head level with line of back, tail dropping at right 
angles to back line 1 

Underline. — Straight, flanks deep and full 3 

Legs. — Short, straight and squarely placed, perpendicular both 
from side and end view, forearm muscular, bones strong and 
clean . .............. 6 

Flesh. — Deep, firm, smooth, uniform covering of all parts and 
free from patchiness 8 

Skin — Of moderate thickness, mellow, pliable and loose, abun- 
dantly covered with long, thick, silky hair 6 

General Appearance. — Vigorous, compact and symmetrical. 
Bulls masculine and possesing an abundance of quality and 
predominant breeding characteristics. Females matronly, 
roomy, smooth, showing quality and feminine appearance 
throughout 10 

Weight. — Age and condition to be considered 5 

Total 100 



254 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE 

Galloway. — The Galloway breed originated in Scotland 
in the counties of Wigton, Ayr, and Dumfries. The original 
Galloway was characterized by a number of objectionable 
points, principally in the lack of rib development and early 
maturing qualities. The modern type of Galloway, however, 
has been improved very much in these respects, representing 
a comparatively compact, low set, thick-fleshed beef animal. 
The weight of the males ranges from 1700 to 2000 pounds on 
the average, cows weighing considerably less. This is one 
of the smallest breeds of beef cattle not ranking with the 




Fig. 107 — Galloway bull. 

former three described in this respect. The breed is polled. 
The standard color of the Galloway is solid black, although 
white frequently occurs. The coat of hair is exceedingly 
long, thick, curly, mossy, and evenly distributed, and for 
this reason the hide is used in the manufacture of robes. 
The quality is without objection, the bone being fine 
and the skin mellow and elastic. The constitution is good, 
the hardiness of the breed being especially significant in 
its adaptation to colder, less protected conditions than the 
other beef breeds. The Galloway ranks well in its meat- 
producing qualities. 



EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 255 

Standard of Excellence for Galloway Cattle. 

Color. — Black, or black, with a brownish tinge. White markings 
on feet, ankles or legs, or on any portion of the body above the 
underline, are very objectionable. 

Head. — Short and wide, forehead broad, crown wide and oval, not 
rising to a point. Any trace of scurs or horns debar an animal from 
registration. Face clean, muzzle broad, and nostrils large. 

Eye. — Large and prominent. 

Ear. — Moderate in length and broad, pointing forward and upward, 
with fringe of long hairs. 

Neck. — Short, clean, and filling into the shoulder in such a manner 
as to make the neck and shoulder of fleshy animals appear moulded 
as one piece. The top of the neck in line with the back in a female, 
and in a male gradually rising with age. 

Body. — Deep, wide, well rounded, moderate in length and symmetrical. 

Shoulders. — Broad, but well laid into body, joining smoothly; com- 
pact and deeply fleshed on top. 

Ribs. — Deep and well sprung, crops deeply fleshed, making width of 
shoulders and body at ribs uniform. 

Hook-bones. — Not prominent; in fleshy animals not visible. 

Loin. — Moderate in length, wide and deeply fleshed. 

Hindquarters. — Long, wide and well filled. 

Rump. — Straight, wide, carrying width of body out uniformly. Well 
filled with flesh. 

Thighs. — Broad as viewed from side, thick as viewed behind; straight 
and well let down at hock, rounded buttocks very objectionable. 

Legs. — Short and clean, with fine bone. 

Tail. — Set on straight and smoothly laid in with flesh at sides. A 
high tail-head very objectionable. 

Skin. — Mellow and moderate in thickness. 

Hair. — Soft and wavy, with mossy undercoat. Harsh or wiry hair is 
very objectionable. Curly hair, if soft, is not objectionable. 

Points to be Avoided. 

by the late james biggar, dalbeattie, scotland. 

Long, narrow head with light crown. 

Narrow, tapering muzzle. 

Long, drooping ears. 

Small, deep-set eyes. 

Small, fight neck. 

Light, scraggy breast. ' 

High, narrow shoulders. 

Flatness behind shoulders. 

Light fore or back ribs. 

Square and prominent hook-bones. 

High or drooping rumps. 

Weak or slack loins. 

Rounded buttocks. 

Fleshy double thighs. 

Big, coarse bones. 

Thick, stiff skin. 

Hard, wiry hair without soft undercoat. 



256 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE 

Sussex. — The Sussex breed of cattle is not of special 
significance in beef production in this country. The native 
home of the breed is in the county of Sussex, England. In 
this country interests were centered in this breed largely in 
Tennessee. The breed was first imported in 1884 by Mr. 
Overton Lea who maintained quite a large herd. Later other 
importations were made; however, the breed has not become 
important. The size is comparable to the largest breeds of 
beef cattle, the bulls attaining a weight equal to that of the 
recognized breeds. The color of the Sussex is deep red and 
it is characterized by horns of rather prominent develop- 
ment. The body is capacious and low set, and while ranking 
very favorably, the breed is not widely disseminated. The 
form of the Sussex is reasonably blocky, thus meeting the 
requirements of the typical beef animal to quite a marked 
degree. The quality is somewhat deficient, the head, neck 
and shoulder development especially showing an inclination 
to coarseness. The breed is fair in milk-producing qualities. 
Specimens of the breed graze well and mature early. The 
chief criticisms of the breed are its coarseness and lack of 
general refinement. 

Dual Purpose Breeds. — The dual purpose breeds are 
characterized by a two-purpose function — the production 
of both meat and milk. Much has been said and written 
about the merits of these breeds, at times favorable and again 
unfavorable. While it is recognized that perfection of both 
meat and milk-giving attributes cannot be reached in the 
same animal, there is undoubtedly a place for the dual 
purpose breeds on the small farms especially. Under such 
conditions neither strict dairying nor beef production can 
be made a specialty. A combination of the two, although 
each showing comparatively lessened proficiency, seems to 
more fully meet the needs of the smaller and more isolated 
class of farmers. The three breeds of importance in helping 
to meet these requirements are characterized as follows : 

Shorthorn (Dual Purpose Type).— The Shorthorn breed 
of cattle, formerly described under the beef type, is significant 
in having- a strain or family in the breed having well-developed 
dual purpose characteristics. Animals partaking of these 



EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 257 

qualities are often referred to as Bates-bred cattle because 
of the particular attention which this breeder gave to milk- 
giving characteristics in the breed. Shorthorns possessing the 
dual purpose functions do not have the beef-producing quali- 
ties which the specialized beef strains possess ; however, they 
have a beef-producing conformation which is strikingly ex- 
hibited in the offspring. Although not as early maturing 
as the popular Scotch type of animals, the correlated func- 
tions of meat and milk production are very acceptable. In 




Fig. 108. — Dual purpose Shorthorn cow. 

England large numbers of dual purpose Shorthorns are bred 
because of their significant double-producing functions. 
Numerous creditable records have been made which indi- 
cate the possibility of developing Shorthorns in these two 
capacities. There is probably no other beef breed which 
will equal the Shorthorn in dairy performance, although 
these qualities are not equally developed in all animals. In 
selecting Shorthorns for milk and beef production, special 
attention should be given to the type and breeding records. 
The incorporation of Scotch or other blood with specific 
meat-producing tendencies would of necessity unbalance the 
17 



258 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE 

dual purpose function. The general Shorthorn character 
should be kept in mind in judging dual purpose animals of 
the breed. 

Red Polled. — The Red Polled breed is the most significant 
breed which has been developed entirely for dual purpose 
production. It is a native of Norfolk and Suffolk counties, 
England, having become disseminated rather widely in certain 
states in this country. The breed is characterized by a solid 
red color, except white is permissible up to the navel and on 
the switch. The breed possesses a polled head and a very 




Fig. 109.— Red Polled bull. 



well-balanced dual purpose capacity. The type of this 
breed varies considerably, this being a condition difficult 
to govern in any dual purpose animal, not necessarily be- 
cause of the breed but because of the likelihood of different 
standards being maintained by various breeders. The 
weight of mature males varies from 1800 to 2000 pounds 
on the average. As would be expected in a dual pur- 
pose animal the form is usually not as deep, broad, or 
compact as in the special beef breeds. The Red Polled 
is somewhat lacking in natural flesh and in the development 
of the hindquarters. The quality is regarded as fair and the 
temperament somewhat nervous. The chief objections to 



EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 259 

the breed are the variation in type, the lack of uniform udder 
development, and cf good fleshing qualities. The teats are 
objectionable because of the extreme variation in size. A 
better defined standard toward which breeders could work 
would overcome a great many of the present faults of the 
breed, and aid in its distribution. 




Fig. 110.— Red Polled cow. 



Standard of Excellence and Scale of Points foe Red 
Polled Cattle. 

Bull. 

Points. 

General Description. — Strong, impressive, low set, and of good 
carriage. Weight 1800 pounds to 2000 pounds when mature 
and finished. 

Color. — Any shade of red, the switch of tail may be white, with 
some white running forward to the navel. Nose of a clear flesh 
color. Interior of ears should be of a yellowish, waxy color . 2 

Objections: An extreme dark or an extreme light red is not desir- 
able. A cloudy nose or one with dark spots. 

Head. — Wide, strong and masculine, relatively short. Poll 
stronger and less prominent than in cow. Ears of medium size 
and well carried; eyes prominent; muzzle wide with large nostrils 12 

Objections: Long, narrow, or lacking in masculine character. 

Neck. — Of medium length, full crest, of good thickness, strong, 
of masculine appearance 5 

Shoulder. — Of medium thickness and smoothly laid, coming up 
level with line of back 8 

Carried forward 27 



260 JUDGING ni<:i<;i<' Ai\l> DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE 

Points 

Brought forward '-57 

Objections Shoulder too pr nont, giving the appoaranoo of 

weakness in heart girth) shoulder protruding tibovo lino of 
baolc, 
• ' 1 1 1 .■ . i • . liroad nnil doop, insuring oonstitutioiii Briskot promi 
nont and ooining woll forward . 12 

H\iK \ n i > Kiiim I ' : i < • K iiiriliiini IniiKi Straight and lovol from 

withors to sotting on of tail, modoratoly wide, with spring of 
ribs starting from the backbone, giving ti rounding appoaranoo, 

wiili ribs flat and r.'uiiv wido apart ' ' 

Objections: I'VihiI, riliw too straight, oausing doprossion back of 

shoulders, I >r< »i > in baol< or l< >i ■ < bolow tho top lino, 
Hips, Wido, rounding ovor tho hooks, and woll oovorod ... 3 
Qd utTianB, I >f good longth, full, rounding and lovol; thighs wide, 

:iml modoratoly lull, doop 

Objections: Prominent hooks and sunken quartei'Si 

Tail. Tail head strong and sotting woll forward) long and tapor 

mi 1 in a lull switch . . 

i.i'i;;;. Short, straight, squarely plaood, medium bono ... 3 

( >h/t tlhiil:;; I lurk:; Ol'OOkod j logS plaOQCl I "' I oloSO together, 

LtuDiMBNTAunoH, Largo, wido apart, and plaood woll forward 12 

Posit inn ill' rudimontarios 

Objections: lludimontarios planed back mi scrotum, or plaood 

too oloso together, indicating tendency to transmit badly formed 

uddors. 
1 1 1 1 > i boose, mellow, flexible, inclined to thioknoss, with a good, 

lull coat <>i M'l'i liair i"> 

Objections: Thin, papery skin or wiry liair, 

( Condition, Healthy, moderate to liberal flosh ovonly laid on; 

glossy coal ; animal prosontod hi lull bloom 10 

Total !<>'» 

I ^QUALIFICATIONS^ 

Sours, or any ovidonoe whatever of ;i liorny growth on the hoad, 
A 1 1 \ white spots mi body above lower lino or brush <>i tail. 

( low. 

Points, 

Gwniqral Description, Mriiium wodgo form, low sot, lop and 
bottom lines straight except at Hank; weight 1300 pounds to 
1500 pounds whon mature and finished. 

Color, Any sluido of rod . The switch of tail and udder may bo 
white wil li some white running forward to the navel. Nose of a, 
clear flesh color. Interior of oars should bo of a yellowish, waxy 

color 'J 

Objections: Am oxtromo dark or an extreme light red is not desir- 
able A cloudy nose or one wifli dnrk spots. 

(.'juried forward 2 



EVOLUTION OF THE BEEP CATTLE INDUSTRY 261 

Point* 

Brought forward .... ^ 

Head, Of medium length, wide between fchi i y , loping gradu 
ally from above eyes to poll J be poll well defined and promi 
nent, with a sharp dip behind it in center of bead, Ear/! oi 
medium size and well carried. Eye* prominent; face well dished 
between fche eye*. Muzzle wide, with large nostrils ... 6 
Objections: A rounding or flat appearance of fche poll. Head 

fcoo long and narrow. 

Neck, Of medium length, clean cut, and straight from head fco 

top of shoulder, with inclination fco arch when fattened, and 

may nbow U>\<\, <>l \<><i.<- ■■Mm ui»'l<-.r/i<-:i.Ui v/li'-.n m milking form •> 
Shouldee. Of medium thickness and smoothly laid, coming up 

level with line of back ...... •» 

Objections: Shoulder fcoo prominent, giving fche appearance of 

weakness in heart girth, snouldei protruding above line of bad 
Chest, Broad and deep, insuring constitution, Brisket promi 

nent and coming well forward '" 

i'. - i /..i, Ribs, Bach medium long, straight and level from 

wiUi'-r:-: fco setting <>n of fcail, moderately wide, with spring of 

ribs starting from fche backbone, giving ••■. rounding appearance, 

with ribs flat and fairly wide apart ..... m 

Objections'. Front nl<;, fcoo straight, causing depression back ol 

shoulders Drop in back or loin below fche fcop line. 
Hips, W^ide, rounding over the hooks, and well covered , . '■'> 

Quabtebs, Of good length, full, rounding and level; fchighi 

wide, roomy, and not, 1,00 meat,// 

Objections: Prominent hooks and sunken quartei 

'I'm;,. Tail-head strong and setting well forward, long and fcap< i 

in;', fco a full switch 

1,1.'.,. Short, straight, squarely placed, medium bone ... '•'> 
Objections: nocks crooked; legs placed fcoo clos< fcogether. 
Fobeuddeb, Full and flexible, reaching well forward, extending 

'Jown level wiUi hindudder 10 

Hinduddeb, Full and well up behind 10 

'i i. ."!■,. Well placed, wide apart, and of reasonably good sizi 4 

Objections Lack ol development, especially in forward udd< i 

udder fcoo deep, "bottle snaped," and fceaw fcoo close fcogether, 

Teats unevenly placed and either fcoo large oi fcoo small, 
.viii.k Veins Ol medium size, full, flexible, extending well for 

ward, well retained within the body; milk wells ol medium size 
Hide, Loose, mellow, flexible, inclined fco fchicknei , with a good, 

full coat of soft hair ...... o 

Objections: Thin, papery skin or wiry hair, 

( o on it; Healthy, moderate fco liberal flesh evenly laid on; 

glossy coat; animal presented in full bloom 10 

Total 100 



Dl| QUALI1 ICATlO 

Bcurs, or any evidence whatever of a horny growth on fche head, 
Any white pot) on body above lower line or brush of tail 



262 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE 

Devon. — The Devon breed is a native of Devon and 
Somerset counties England. It is characterized by a solid 
red color except for white around the udder and scrotum, 
white being permissible in neither sex in front of the navel. 
The shade of red varies from light to dark, the latter being 
preferable. The muzzle should be flesh-colored, and the hair 
around the eyes and muzzle a creamy tint. The weight of the 
males ranges from 1500 to 2000 pounds; however, the latter 
is somewhat excessive for average conditions. The horns are 




Fig. 111. — Devon cow. 

rather long, spreading and upturned. The size of the horns is 
medium, the base light and waxy, and the extremities are of 
a darker shade. The form of the Devon is rather low set, 
the body deep, the ribs well sprung, and the heart girth 
usually well developed. The breed is usually very refined, and 
it possesses unusual activity, which is manifested especially 
in the oxen quite generally used throughout the New Eng- 
land States. The chief faults with the breed are the lack 
of size, early maturity, and uniform milk-giving capacity. 
The distinctive breed attributes are the color, horns, refine- 
ment, and activity. More size would be acceptable, but 



EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 263 

breeders contend that to increase it would injure the quality. 
While the breed is quite widely disseminated it is not re- 
garded as important except under special localized condi- 
tions. 

Standard of Excellence and Scale of Points for Devon 
Cattle 
Bull. 

Points. 

Head. — Masculine, full and broad, tapering toward the nose, 
which should be flesh-colored; nostrils high and open, muzzle 
broad; eyes full and placid and surrounded with flesh-colored 
ring; ears of medium size and thickness; horns medium size, 
growing at right angles from the head, or slightly elevated, 
waxy at the base, tipped with a darker shade 10 

Cheek. — Full and broad at root of tongue; throat clean ... 2 

Neck. — Of medium length and muscular, widening from the head 
to the shoulders, and strongly set on . . 4 

Shoulders. — Fine, flat, sloping, and well fleshed; arms strong, 
with firm joints 6 

Chest. — Deep, broad and somewhat circular 10 

Ribs. — Well sprung from the backbone, nicely arched, deep, with 
flanks fully developed 10 

Back. — Straight and level from the withers to the setting on of 
the tail; loin broad and full; hips and rump of medium width 
and on a level with the back 20 

Hindquarters. — Deep, thick, and square 12 

Tail. — Well set on at. a right angle with the back, tapering, with 
a switch of white or roan hair and reaching the hocks ... 2 

Legs. — Short, straight and squarely placed when viewed from 
behind, not to cross or sweep in walking; hoof well formed . 4 

Skin. — Moderately thick and mellow, covered with an abundant 
coat of rich hair of a red color; no white spot admissible unless 
around the purse 8 

Size. — Minimum weight at 3 years of age 1400 pounds . _ . 4 

General Appearance. — As indicated by stylish and quick 
movement, form, constitution, and vigor, and the underline 
as nearly as possible parallel with the line of the back ... 8 

Total 100 

Cow. 

Points. 

Head. — Moderately long, with a broad indented forehead, taper- 
ing considerably toward the nostrils; the nose of a flesh color, 
nostrils high and open; the jaws clean; the eye bright, lively 
and prominent, and surrounded by a flesh-colored ring; throat 
clean; ears thin; the expression gentle and intelligent; horns 
matching; spreading and gracefully turned up, of a waxy color, 
tipped with a darker shade 8 

Carried forward 8 



204 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE 

Points, 

Brought forward s 

Neck. — Upper line short, line at head, widening and deep at 

withers and strongly set to the shoulders 4 

Shoulders. — Fine, flat and sloping, wiUi strong arms and firm 

joints 4 

Chest. — Deep, broad, and somewhat circular in character . . 8 
lima. — Well sprung from the backbone, nicely arched, deep, with 

flanks fully developed ... 8 

Back. — Straight and level from the withers to the setting on of 
the tail, loin broad and full, hips and rump of medium width, 

and on a level with the hack Id 

IIindqijautwub. -Deep, thick, and square 8 

Udder, — Not fleshy, coming well forward in line with the belly 

and well up behind; teats moderately large, and squarely placed 20 
Tatl. — Well set on at a, right angle with the back, tapering with 

a, switch of white or loan hair and reaching the hocks ... 2 

Legs. — Straight, squarely placed when viewed from behind, not 

to cross or sweep in walking; hoof well formed 4 

Skin. Moderately thick and mellow, covered with an abundant 
coat of rich hair of a, red color; no white spot admissible, except 

the udder 8 

Size. — Minimum weight at 3 years of age, 1000 pounds ... 2 
( Ieneral Appearance, — As indicated by stylish and quick move- 
ment, form, constitution anil vigor, and the underline as nearly 
as possible parallel with the line of the back 8 

Total 100 



Class Characteristics. — From the standpoint of the judge, 
cattle may be divided into fat, feeder, stocker, young stock, 
or calves, and breeding animals which should possess the 
following characteristics: 

Fat Cattle. —Fat cattle, which includes steers usually, 
are judged l;ngcly <>u their conformation, quality, and 
condition. This class of animals is further divided into 
grades, ranging from inferior to choice. A consideration 
of these grades, however, is not important at this time. 
While it is desirable for the fat animal to possess the same 
form as the highly developed breeding animal, their con- 
dition is of fundamental importance, especially from the 
market standpoint. Show ring fat cattle should possess 
faultless conformation and quality as well as condition. 
The inferior grades of I'at cattle will, of necessity, possess 
serious faults. However, proper lilting will give them 
acceptable condition and value. 



EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 265 

A steer may he ideal from the standpoint of form alone, 
hut unless it is accompanied by the proper amount of con- 
dition or fat, it would be eliminated from a place in a fat 
elass for this reason alone. The fat animal should be long, 
broad, deep and low set; the top and underline should be 
straight and parallel, the ribs well sprung, the loin broad 
and thick, the coupling short, and the twist well filled. The 
head should be broad and long, the muzzle prominent, the 
eyes large, clear and bright, the neck short and full and 
evenly blended with the shoulder. 

The condition of a fat animal may be determined, first, 
by the general appearance, including symmetry and smooth- 
ness, and lastly by an examination of the tongue root, which 
should be full and firm. The flanks should be low and well 
filled and the cod or purse fully distended with fat. The 
back, loin and ribs should be deeply and. uniformly covered. 
The amount of fat may be determined by passing the hand, 
palm down, along the back and sides which should be deeply 
and smoothly covered, if the animal is in high condition. 
Rolls, ties or patches are objectionable to the extent of 
their occurrence. A true, well-balanced trim animal, with 
a minimum of waste is the ideal for the feeder and the 
butcher. 

Feeders. — Feeder cattle should be of similar form to fat 
animals except for the condition or fat accumulation. 
Ordinarily such animals are lacking materially in fat, this 
depending, however, on the way in which they have been 
handled. Strictly speaking, an animal is a feeder until 
it has accumulated a sufficient amount of fat to place it in 
the most desirable market condition. Usually animals 
which class as feeders have only a limited, amount of fat., 
the result of ordinary feeding or grazing conditions on the 
range or farm. 

The lines of the animal should be straight, the form 
square, low set and it should possess quality and a sufficient 
amount of constitution to get the best results under feed 
lot conditions. Otherwise, constitution is not of special 
significance in an animal of this type. Feeders should 
possess all the requisites of the fat animal except for fa1 



266 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE 




EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 267 

accumulation, which is the ultimate purpose for purchasing 
such animals. The feeder is the prospect and the finished 
animal the product of the stockman's goal. The desirability 
of the form and finish of the fat animal is directly dependent 
on the kind of animal selected in the beginning. 

Stockers. — Stocker cattle should be the same in type and 
breeding as feeders or fat animals, although the grades may 
vary likewise. Stockers are young animals, ordinarily 
yearlings, which are wintered on roughage, grazed the 
following summer and finished for market usually during 
the fall and winter period, though sometimes finished in 
summer. The stocker should possess all the attributes of 
the feeder or fat animal except age and condition. Con- 
siderable attention should be given to the outcome. The 
desirability of the stocker is determined by the market grade 
of the animal, which ranges from inferior to choice. Like 
feeders and fat animals they may be either pure bred or 
grades from some of the prominent beef breeds, most of them 
coming under the grade class. It is only in selecting animals 
for some special purpose, like feeding, and later fitting for 
some of the large stock shows, that pure breeds are likely 
to be used. Even then many of the best-fitted animals are 
of grade origin. In selecting a stocker constitution is usually 
of somewhat greater importance than in the feeder or fat 
animal. 

Calves. — Calves are subject to judging for future use on 
the same basis as discussed under stocker, and feeder 
cattle. They should possess quality, constitution, and 
vigor, a full, square form, and show evidence of develop- 
ment in a square frame, a strong bone, a deep, uniform 
amount of natural flesh, and capacious feeding qualities. 
Evidence of continuous thrift should be apparent. Young 
animals with small bone, cramped heart girth and upstand- 
ing, shallow bodies seldom develop into thrifty specimens. 
In judging calves a great deal of stress should be placed on 
the outcome or future usefulness. The small, fat, sleek- 
bodied calf seldom develops into a large, thrifty, capacious 
animal. One with a square, compact form, although some- 
what inclined to be rough, will usually make good growth 



268 JUDGING BEEF AND nil A I, PURPOSE CATTLE 

and develop into an animal at least with acceptable form 
and quality. Calves should show every evidence of early 
maturity and natural fleshing qualities. 

BREEDING ANIMALS. 

Breed Type. In selecting a breeding animal of pure 
lineage, the breed type should receive; first consideration. 
If the animal is lacking in any substantia] breed character- 
istics this is sufficient to cause severe discrimination. Animals 
which are maintained for the reproduction of pure-bred 
animals should possess the accepted form and features 
maintained by the breeders or the organization which cham- 
pions the cause of the breed. An animal which fails to con- 
form to breed type is not only at fault itself, but the faulty 
characters will be reproduced and thus magnify the condition. 
In establishing a pure-bred herd the type accepted for a 
foundation should stand for some definite purpose. The 
breed which is making the greatest headway is the one 
which has embodied in it the fundamentals necessary for 
accomplishing the specific purpose in view. If the aim is 
to breed high-class, pure-bred animals the best is none too 
good. Unless animals can be produced which satisfy the 
critical breeder or feeder, it, is useless to spend money toward 
this end. To do this involves a knowledge of breed type or 
character. The student or purchaser should therefore be 
familiar with the attributes or type qualifications, which 
should be an embodiment of correlated utility functions. 

Conformation. The breeding animal is not materially 
different from the type described under Beef Conformation. 
The breeding animal, however, should possess scale, an 
abundance of constitution, and show evidence of capacity 
both in the digestive and reproductive systems. The con- 
stitution should be unusually well developed because of the 
long period of usefulness in these animals. A long, deep, 
roomy barrel in the breeding female is important, although 
symmetry and quality should conform with the other 
requisites of the animal. Males should show strong repro- 
ductive qualities in the head and crest, and females evidence 



BREEDING ANIMALS 



269 



of a strongly developed reproductive system and milking 
qualities. In the female the hindquarters should be long, 
level, the thighs broad, and the hook points rather prominent 
when the animal is in medium flesh. The latter attribute 
is indicative of strong maternal qualities. 

Constitution and Vigor.— All breeding animals should be 
qualified with unusual indications of strong bodies and 
natural vigor. Such animals, very much unlike fattening 
animals, must undergo a severe strain incident to re- 







Fig, li.';. Galloway cow, showing a strong, rugged constitution. 



production. This requires an unusual amount of vitality 
for best results. These characteristics are indicated in the 
large, broad muzzle, broad, clear-cut head, bright, prominent 
eyes, and a deep, full chest. A capacious, compact , 1 1 
roomy hod; i , also indicative of this qualification. ( lonsider- 
ation of these points is vital in lelecting breeding animals. 

Temperament. Temperament has reference to the develop- 
ment of the nervous system or the amount of nerve force. 
In beef cattle the temperament should be lymphatic, which 
signifies rapid fattening propensities. In animals maintained 
for breeding purposes activity and thrift should be closely 



Ii7() JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE 

associated with this attribute, although not to the extent 
of depreciating the normally accepted qualification, Any 
indication of nervousness in a beef animal is seriously 
objectionable, although some excellent beef animals are dis- 
posed to have this fault. Such a condition is antagonistic 
to rapid fleshing qualities. Breeding animals should possess 
a hold, stylish carriage, although the temperament should be 
lymphatic, thus indicating easy handling and management. 
A sluggish temperament is very objectionable. 

Sex Characteristics. The sex of a breeding animal should 
he shown by a, glance at the head and neck. The hull 

should be strong in I he head, although there should be 

every evidence of style and refinement. The neck should 
be short, l hick, and the crest well developed, although not 
to a disproportionate extent. The body should be broad, 
deep, long and compact, indicating the transmission of 
weight and early maturing qualities. Indication of feminine 
characters should he disqualifying marks. Delicacy of 

Constitution and lack of capacity are serious faults. 

The head of the Female should he finer and cleaner cut 

than in l he male. Any indication of masculinity is very 
objectionable. There should he an expression of refinement 
in the head which should characterize the entire animal. 
There should he no indication <»l crest development. The 

head, neck and shoulders should he on a, level, (here being 
neither a, rise nor a. depression in the lines of these parts. 

The mammary system should be well developed, although in 
heel' animals it is not expected (hat extraordinary evidences 

of milk-producing Capacity will be present. There should 
be sufficient development, however, to nourish the call' 
Until its growth and development can he cared for otherwise. 

Evidences of masculinity in the male and femininity in the 

female should he readily apparent. 



CHAPTER XI. 

,ji!ik;in(; dairy cattle. . 

Purpose of the Dairy Animal. The purpose of the dairy 
animal, and therefore the fundamental factors in judging, 
are strikingly different from any other farm animal. The 
indications of intrinsic value and capacity are determined 
from an entirely different viewpoint than in judging the horse 
or l>loek animals. The form is not only different but its 
associated attributes for attainment of purpose are deeper 
lying than in other animals. From the standpoint of 
capacity the development of the vital organs are of much 
greater importance in the dairy animal than in any other. 
For example, the direct association ol' the circulatory system 
with milk-giving capacity, which is the important and one 
vital attainment of tin; dairy animal, represents quite 
forcibly the depth of this statement. Without a strong cir- 
culatory system, whereby the food can be manufactured into 
milk through the various processes of digestion, absorption, 
and assimilation the capacity of the dairy animal would be 
limited. The limitation would depend on the degree of 
development of the circulatory system. An animal with a 
weakened system would have low vitality and therefore 
not only would it be limited in point of present attainment, 
but the durability and persistency of production would be 
lessened in the offspring. 

As the dairy animal gives off the products of food diges- 
tion, absorption and assimilation, daily the natural result 
would be an animal with the spare, open conformation such 
as the dairy animal possesses. The block animals, which 
accumulate the products of the manufactured food, assume; 
an entirely different form, instead of the food products 
being given oil' daily there is an accumulation on the body 
of the animal, based on dry matter, a similar or like amount 

(271) 



272 




JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 





in 



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sm ri 


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DAIRY FORM 



211 



of manufactured food materials. We have, therefore, the 
two distinct types, one eliminating from the body through 
the mammary system and the other accumulating the prod- 
ucts in the bone and muscular tissues, the former being- 
represented in the dairy animal and the latter in the block 
animal. 

Dairy Form. — The type of a typical dairy cow presents a 
striking contrast to meat-producing animals. This is only 
natural, however, considering the peculiar nature of the work 
to be performed. In all other food-producing animals the 
effect of food consumption is cumulative, the digested por- 
tions of the food eaten being stored in the body of the animal. 
The square, blocky, compact form produces the most econom- 
ical results from a meat-productive standpoint because the 
maximum amount of the manufactured product can be 
stored under such conditions. Likewise the dairy type of 
animal produces the largest quantity of milk because of the 
adaptation of the triangular or wedge-shaped form to milk 
production. The dairy animal does not have need for a 
broad, smooth, compact shoulder, back, loin, or thighs. 
The one great work of this type of animal is to produce, 
through the digestive and mammary systems, the maximum 
amount of milk possible under the conditions of individual 
form, kind and quantity of feed consumed and general care 
and management. This necessitates a striking contrast in 
the development of the body of beef and dairy animals. 



EXPLANATION OF FIG. 114. 



1— Mouth. 

2 — Nostrils. 

3 — Muzzle. 

4 — Face. 

5 — -Eyes. 

6 — Forehead. 

7 — Ears. 

8— Poll. 

9 — Horns. 
10 — Jaws. 
11 — Dewlap. 
12— Brisket. 
13— Neck. 
IS 



14— Withers. 

15 — Crops. 

16 — Shoulders. 

17 — Heart girth. 

18— Foreflank. 

19— Legs. 

20— Feet. 

21 — Dew claws. 

22 — Belly or underline. 

23 — Mammary orifices 

or wells. 
24 — Mammary veins. 
25 — Fore udder. 



26— Teats. 

27— Barrel. 

28— Back. 

30— Hindflank. 

31 — Hook points. 

32— Tail-head. 

33 — Pin-bones or thurls. 

34 — Rump. 

35 — Escutcheon. 

36— Tail. 

37— Thighs. 

38 — Hind udder. 

39— Switch. 



274 JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 

The digestive system and the mammary system are 
indirectly related to the production of muscle which 
constitutes the food product in the block animal. This 
fact is emphasized in the spare form and the nervous develop- 
ment of the dairy animal which shows that the feed eaten is 
not stored on the body, but rather manufactured into milk 
through the digestive, circulatory, and mammary systems. 
The large capacious barrel for feed consumption, the strongly 
developed circulatory system indicated in the eyes, chest, and 
general vigor displayed by the animal and the well-developed 
mammary system are the three vital attributes for the 
maximum production of milk. 

A strong constitution indicates durability and vitality, 
which are essential in any animal, constantly drawing 
on its own food resources. A strong blood circulatory 
system indicates health, vigor, and the proper distribution 
of the digested materials taken from the feed, while a large 
and well-developed mammary system is indicative of a 
capacious manufacturing plant for milk elaboration. When 
these factors or parts of the animal are properly developed 
they form distinguishing features of unusual significance. 
The wedge-shaped form of the dairy cow is significant in 
its indication of capacity, mammary development, and 
nerve force or nerve temperament. Each part of the 
animal has its own important part in milk production. Any 
one part removed or impaired would seriously impede the 
milk-productive capacity and otherwise injure the delicate 
mechanism of the animal. 

Dairy Function. — The primary function of the dairy cow 
is to produce milk, and the secondary function to reproduce 
herself. Her ability to accomplish these purposes depends 
on six fundamental points of development. These are dairy 
form or type, constitution, capacity, nervous temperament 
or nerve force, the mammary system, and circulatory devel- 
opment. A proper correlation of these factors is necessary 
for an animal to produce to its maximum capacity. The 
fundamental factor is capacity for food consumption. - If 
an animal is limited in its ability to consume food the final 
product or milk-producing capacity is limited likewise, as 



DAIRY FUNCTION 275 

it depends directly on the quantity of food consumed. 
While the producing ability of an animal may be hindered 
through other sources than limited food consumption and 
a deficient mammary system, these two factors are of the 
utmost significance. 

A well-balanced animal involving the factors named 
above will usually have normal activity and ultimate milk- 
producing capacity, although certain unknown factors may 
impair or permanently retard one or more of these func- 
tions. While it is not always possible to use production as 
a basis in selecting dairy cows, it is always desirable to do 
so, especially when animals can be selected having records 
extending over long, continuous periods. It is not possible 
for a student to follow this practice, neither has it been 
established in show ring judging except under specialized 
conditions. Because of the impracticability of always 
measuring the capacity of a dairy animal on her actual 
producing ability, the body form and other exterior evidences 
of heavy and continuous production are used as a basis 
for selecting animals. 

Experience and observation have taught that there are 
certain basic conditions or relations between heavy and 
continuous milk production. It is on these foundation 
principles that dairy cattle are judged by making general 
and scrutinized examinations of the exterior form and 
development. The degree of productiveness or usefulness 
is determined by the degree of development of the factors 
mentioned above. Deficiency or delicacy in one or all 
impairs the efficiency of the animal to the extent of the 
deficiency, whether singly or combined in influence. The 
judge of long experience is able to detect very accurately 
the actual working capacity of an animal because of the 
known relation of each factor to this capacity as well as their 
combined influence. Limited observation or experience can 
only assume the actual effect on production of a deficient 
form, cramped digestive capacity, weakened constitution 
or low vitality, a small mammary system, or a weak circu- 
latory system. A complete knowledge based on years of 
observation and practice is essential to a determination of 



276 



JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 



the value of these factors, singly or combined. Likewise, 
correct judgment on dairy form and capacity is the result 
of continuous practice in determining the value of a single 
factor or its combined influence with one or more of the 
others essential to high and continuous production. 

Wedges of the Dairy Animal. — The extreme development of 
the dairy animal toward the wedge-shaped form is significant 
of factors not wholly understood by the average person. 
Why a dairy animal should be so extremely different from a 
block animal would ordinarily cause comment, yet a basic 




Fig. 115. — Front wedge of the dairy cow, showing the general tendency to 
grow wider toward the hindquarters. 



understanding of this development is comparatively simple 
and significant in its meaning. One of the fundamental 
principles involved in a heavy producing dairy animal is the 
extreme development of the body or barrel compared with 
the size of the animal. In a heavy producer the barrel is 
wholly out of proportion with any other part, region, or a 
combination of them. 

Viewed from three different angles the dairy animal 
presents three distinct wedges, namely, the front wedge, the 
side wedge, and the top wedge. The meaning of these 



QUALITY 



277 



terms is simple. They imply an increasing depth of body 
toward the rear as viewed from the side, an increasing 
width of body toward the rear as viewed from in front, and 
an increasing width toward the floor of the barrel as viewed 
from above. The whole of this development is significant of 
barrel capacity which is one of the real fundamentals of dairy 
production. It is exemplified in magnified body capacity 
and in this respect is widely different from any other type 
of animal. 




Fig. 116. — Side wedge of the dairy cow, showing the general tendency to 
grow deeper toward the hindquarters. 



Quality. — The dairy animal should possess an abundance 
of quality. It should have a clean-cut, refined appearance 
about the head and neck and sharp, well-defined withers. 
The spine should be spare and open, the skin pliable and 
elastic, the hair fine and oily, and the bone dense and fine in 
texture. This attribute is important, not only because of 
its special relation to the type and refinement of the animal, 
but because of its influence on maintenance and cost of 
production. A large, coarse-boned dairy animal is seldom 
an economical producer. Although such an animal may 



278 



JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 



produce large quantities of milk, it is usually at a loss because 
of the excessive food requirements of a large, unrefined 




Fig. 117. — Top wedge of the dairy cow, showing the general tendency to 
grow wider toward the belly or underline 



CONSTITUTION 279 

animal. Heavy framed, coarse-boned dairy animals usually 
convert a larger comparative amount of food into body fat 
and maintenance than animals of fine texture and quality. 

An examination for quality is made by the hand to deter- 
mine the pliability and elasticity of the skin, fineness, and 
texture of the hair. If there is a tendency toward harshness 
or dryness in the skin or hair it is significant of inferior 
quality or temporary ill health. Ordinarily it is the former. 
Other than the examination made by the hand, quality is 
evidenced in the fineness or texture of the bone, clean-cut 
lines, sharp withers, long, thin neck, and general refinement 
or expression. Some judges lay considerable stress on the 
waxy, yellowish condition of the interior of the ears and the 
fineness of the hair thereon. Guernsey admirers are especially 
ardent in their application of this principle to determine 
quality and richness of milk in the breed. 

Constitution. — The constitution of a dairy animal is of 
more than usual significance. The value of such an animal 
is not only dependent on present capacity or usefulness but 
on the length of time which production will be normally and 
profitably continued. This involves durability or vitality. As 
the form of the dairy cow naturally precludes the highest 
development in constitutional capacity, it is especially sig- 
nificant that this attribute receive close consideration. While 
a dairy animal need not be weak in constitution or low in 
vitality the peculiar type of the animal naturally favors such 
a condition. Naturally the wedge-shaped form minimizes 
the space in which the vital organs may develop and perform 
their function. Constitution should be equally correlated 
with the other factors essential to heavy and economical 
production. Naturally the development of the body or 
barrel and the organs of milk production magnify these 
parts and minimize the chest capacity on which a vigorous 
constitution largely depends. 

Constitution, as in other animals, is evidenced by depth 
of body in the chest region and extreme width through the 
lower portion of the ribs and on the chest floor. The true 
dairy form involves a light and spare development at the 
withers, thus to perfect the true wedge-shape accepted as 



280 JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 

a fundamental requisite of dairy form and production. 
Other than this indication constitution is evidenced in the 
same manner as in the beef animal. The muzzle should be 
large, broad, well developed, the eyes large and bright, the 
skin pliable and elastic, the hair thick, mossy, and evenly 
distributed over the body. The bone should be dense, fine, 
and show every indication of refinement and form, although 
not to the extent of delicacy. If there is weakness in the 
vital parts of the animal, and especially in the dairy animal, it 
is an imperfect machine and therefore cannot perform its 
function continuously in a satisfactory manner. 

Nervous Temperament. — The term, nervous temperament, 
is significant of the ability of an animal to utilize its food 
other than that required for body maintenance completely 
for milk production. It represents the exact opposite of 
the conditions which most nearly meet maximum beef pro- 
duction. The beef animal is lymphatic in temperament 
and utilizes its food for body maintenance and muscle 
and fat formation. The dairy animal is nervous in tem- 
perament and uses its food for milk production, which 
is contingent on directing the largest possible part of the 
food nutrients for this purpose. The nervous tempera- 
ment is exemplified in the spare, open, conformation. The 
head should be expressive of character, and clean and free 
from excess flesh. The neck should be long and thin, the 
withers sharp, the spine open, the ribs wide, the hook points 
prominent, the thighs thin and incurving, the rear flanks 
high and the barrel large. All of these points are indicative 
of nerve force, showing that the food is elaborated or used 
otherwise than on the body. 

Capacity. — Capacity in its strictest sense signifies the 
ability of an animal to perform its work with a minimum 
of food and exertion on the working organism, with a 
maximum resulting production. An animal without barrel 
capacity for the storage of large quantities of food will 
be unproductive sooner or later from the standpoint 
of profitable returns. Usually an animal will maintain 
average development for a short time, but the heavy strain 
of milk production soon saps the vitality of the small animal 



CAPACITY 281 

lacking in capacity for food consumption. The result is 
seen directly in the lessened milk flow which eventually 
eliminates such an animal from herds maintained on a 
profitable basis. In the early stages of lactation an animal 
with comparatively small capacity may produce a reasonably 
large quantity of milk. Later in the period, however, 
owing to the lack of food-consumptive ability and digestive 
capacity, the mammary system ultimately subsides and fails 
to produce until again stimulated by reproduction. 











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Fig. 118. — Nervous temperament exemplified in the Jersey bull. Note 
the keen expression of the eyes, the finely drawn features, and the activity 
and energy displayed in the general demeanor. 

Capacity as Indicated by Milk and Butter Standards. — 
The adoption of yearly milk and butter fat tests is significant 
that the leading dairy breed associations recognize the need 
for such data in determining the real practical value or 
capacity of an animal. It may be possible in judging dairy 
attainments to be mistaken in the real productive capacity, 
as evidenced by exterior points or factors. With the aid of 
the standard, if properly applied, the value of an animal can 
be determined absolutely. Student or show ring judging must 
be done by measuring an animal by an adopted system, 



282 



JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 



as it is impossible to determine the productive value by 
applied tests in the modern show ring. If it were possible 
to develop such a system it would be highly desirable from 
several viewpoints. However, capacity may be very accu- 
rately rated or determined if the examiner has a keen knowl- 
edge of true dairy form and its correlated functions. 

Mammary System. — The mammary system represents one 
of the real fundamentals of the dairy cow. The animal may 




Fig. 1 19. — A typical udder exemplified in the Holstein-Friesian cow. Note 
size, length, shape, general balance, and capacity of the cow. 



be perfectly developed from the standpoint of dairy form 
and nervous development, yet if the mammary system is 
insufficiently developed or faulty for any reason, the machine 
is imperfect. After the food is taken into the stomach 
it is digested, absorbed, and finally elaborated into milk 
through the mammary system. The blood carries the 
assimilated food products to the mammary system where 
they are manufactured into milk. If there is not sufficient 
development in the mammary system to ultilize these 
products, the animal is imperfect from the standpoint of 



MAMMARY SYSTEM 



283 



efficiency to the extent of the difference in the capacity of 
the animal form and the mammary system. 

The udder of the dairy cow is the important part of the 
machinery, as it is within the udder that the milk is elaborated. 
The size of it is indicative of capacity for milk production, 
the same as the size of the barrel is indicative of the capacity 
for food consumption. A typical dairy cow should have the 
udder attached high behind. It should extend forward 
sufficiently to allow the teats to be placed at least six inches 
apart. The floor of the udder should be long, broad and 




Fig. 120. — (a) a pendulous udder with small, wart-like teats, lacks 
capacity and is easily injured; (b) a small funnel-shaped udder lacking in 
capacity. Cows with such udders usually have a short lactation period. 

level, as such development furnishes the largest space for 
the absorption of food nutrients for milk elaboration from 
the blood. A small, fleshy udder attached low or just 
between the legs, with a short distention and extending in 
a funnel shape from the underline indicates small milking 
capacity. 

The mammary veins are important, as their size and 
development indicates the amount of blood which passes 
through the udder, this regulating the supply of nutrients 
for the manufacture of milk. The mammary veins should 
be long, large, tortuous, and have numerous branches which 
enter the body through the mammary orifices. These should 



284 JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 

be large to accommodate the mammary veins and the branches 
extending therefrom. An animal with cramped mammary 
development and small barrel capacity cannot produce 
economically because the machine is essentially imperfect. 
If both the original intake and outlet of the animal are so 
developed it is impossible to produce a normal continuous 
flow of milk, as the one condition reacts directly against the 
other. 

Durability and Persistency. — In no class of animals, with 
the possible exception of the horse, is durability as essential as 
in the dairy animal. Her work is not only at a high tension 
for a large portion of the year but in the heaviest producers 
it is so practically during the entire year. A dairy animal 
usually rests for about one month to six weeks from the 
standpoint of direct milk production. However, during 
this time she is usually nourishing a fetus which will soon 
turn the maternal functions to milk production again and 
thus entail the severest labor through which any animal 
must go. The ability to withstand this pressure is a meas- 
ure of her capacity and value as a dairy animal. The 
brood mare works and nourishes a fetus and the colt, but 
she is not compelled to forego the severe strain which the 
dairy cow does during heavy milk production and through 
gestation. The beef animal, the sheep and the hog, have the 
strain of reproduction but they are not compelled to undergo 
the severe and persistent work of heavy milk production 
during this period. The dairy cow, therefore, is subjected 
to a severer strain than any other animal, all of which involves 
the highest development of durability and persistency. 

Structural Form and Examination. — The structural form of 
the dairy animal implies certain specific conditions which are 
best explained by giving a detailed description of these parts. 

Head and Neck. — The head of the dairy cow should be long, 
narrow, intelligent in expression, and show every evidence of 
femininity. The lines of the head should be clear cut and 
generally expressive of life, vigor, and activity. 

The forehead should be broad and flat or slightly concave. 
This is indicative of intelligence and capacity in the develop- 
ment of nerve force. 



STRUCTURAL FORM AND EXAMINATION 



285 



The face should be straight, except as specifically altered 
by breed qualifications. Quality should be apparent. 




Fig. 121. — Cross-section of mammary glands of cow: a, body of gland; 
b, lactiferous sinus; c, cavity of teat; d, duct of teat; e, intermammary groove; 
/, septum between glands; g, supramammary fat. (Courtesy of L. W. 
Sisson, from Anatomy of Domestic Animals.) 



286 JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 

The eyes should be large, clear, bright, and indicative 
of nerve force and general vitality. Small, dull eyes are 
objectionable, showing weak constitution and, therefore, lack 
of vitality or durability. 

The ears should be medium in size and covered with fine, 
soft hair. The interior should be waxy and covered with a 
very fine coat of soft, oily, silky hair. This is considered to 
be a good indication of quality. 

The horns should be developed according to the breed. 
Under any condition they should be medium in size, fine in 
texture, and correspond with the refinement of the animal 
throughout. 

The muzzle should be broad, deep, and should show a 
slight enlargement, thus giving the head the appearance 
of being incurving between the eyes and the junction with 
the muzzle. A straight, coarse head and a pointed muzzle 
are very objectionable. 

The nostrils should be large and open, thus indicating a 
large supply of air into the lungs. 

The neck should be long, and lean, there being no indi- 
cation of beefiness or coarseness. There should be a clear- 
cut junction of the head with the neck. A rather long, thin 
neck with incurving lines is indicative of quality, general 
refinement, and dairy capacity. 

Forequarters. — The forequarters of the animal are sig- 
nificant, as they indicate in a large measure the conformity 
of the animal to the wedge-shaped form which is accepted 
as the true dairy type. 

The shoulders should be long, light, smoothly laid in, 
narrow on top, and gradually broaden toward the region of 
the chest floor. Heavy, coarse shoulders are not only 
indicative of non-conformity to the true dairy type but they 
indicate coarseness of quality and lack of general refinement. 
Any indication toward fulness in the shoulders exhibits a 
tendency to beefiness. 

The brisket should be rather light, spare, and otherwise 
lacking in prominence. An extended brisket with fulness 
and compactness is indicative of beef-producing qualities. 

The legs should be straight, and the bone dense and fine. 
The canons should be clear cut and otherwise indicative of 



STRUCTURAL FORM AND EXAMINATION 287 

quality and refinement. A heavy bone with coarse, undefined 
joints indicates plain quality. 

The feet should be medium in size, strong, and well sup- 
ported with upright pasterns. 

Body. — The body of the dairy animal includes the chest, 
chine, ribs, loin, flanks, and navel, each of which should 
have distinctive qualities for best results. 

The chest development of the dairy animal is of special 
significance because of its relation to constitutional develop- 
ment. A narrow, shallow chest indicates small lung capacity. 
The severe and continuous strain which is placed on the dairy 
animal necessitates a deep, full chest, broad on the floor, 
where the dairy animal gets the major portion of its chest 
development. Width is secured on the floor of the chest 
rather than above, as in the beef animal. 

The chine should be narrow, light, the spines sharp, open, 
and placed wide apart. The back should be straight and 
strong to insure capacity in maintaining a strong, repro- 
ductive and mammary system. A low back is objectionable, 
although not as faulty as in the beef animal. The loin 
should be broad, flat, long and spare of flesh. Openness of 
form throughout the back and loin region is one of the chief 
indications of nerve force. 

The ribs should be long, deep, and arched. The rib 
development is especially significant in the dairy animal 
because of its relation to barrel capacity. Short ribs closely 
spaced show objectionable form, this being characteristic of 
cramped capacity and compactness, two attributes not con- 
sistent with dairy-cow development. 

The flanks should be deep and open. The hindflank 
especially should be high and open to accommodate the 
udder. Low, full flanks are objectionable, as they show a 
beefy tendency. 

Hindquarters. — The hindquarters are divided into the 
hips, rump, thighs, and feet and legs, as designated in the 
following descriptions : 

The hips should be wide apart and prominent, thus 
showing the absence of any beefy tendency. Smooth, 
compact hips exemplify the beef type of animal and should 
therefore not be a characteristic of the dairy animal. 



288 JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 

The rump should be long, broad, and level. The tail- 
head should be smooth and show refinement; otherwise, 
it is indicative of coarse, undefined form. The pin-bones 
should be high, wide apart, and spare in their surrounding 
development. 

The thighs should be long, lean, and incurving. They 
should be the exact opposite of the development in the beef 
animal. Heavy, coarse thighs are seriously objectionable, 
both from the standpoint of quality and nerve development. 

The legs should be straight, strong, and well supported 
on feet of medium size with strong, upright pasterns. 

The tail should be long, fine, and terminate in a switch 
with hair of fine quality. Some breeders lay considerable 
stress on the length of the tail, maintaining that it shows 
deep development in dairy capacity. 

Mammary System. — The mammary system includes the 
udder proper, the mammary veins, wells, teats, and escutch- 
eon. These parts have a significant bearing on the capacity 
of the animal and are described in detail in the following : 

The udder should be large, attached high behind, extend 
well forward, and be carried closely to the body. A pendu- 
lous funnel-shaped udder is seriously objectionable. The 
udder should not exhibit any tendency to beefiness. The 
skin should be pliable, elastic, and the hair smooth and fine 
in quality. A fleshy udder covered with heavy, tight skin 
and long coarse hair is indicative of beef-producing qualifica- 
tions. The length of the udder is important. It should ex- 
tend well forward, the floor should be level, and the quarters 
well balanced. This is all conducive to maximum capacity 
in milk production. 

The mammary veins should be long, large, tortuous, 
and have numerous branches. This indicates a strong 
circulatory development which is one of the essentials in 
high productive capacity. 

The mammary orifices should be large for the entrance of 
the mammary veins in the body. Small mammary orifices 
are indicative usually of small mammary veins and are 
therefore objectionable. 

The teats should be medium and uniform in size, evenly 



STRUCTURAL FORM AND EXAMINATION 289 

placed, and well balanced. Large teats, uneven in size and 
unevenly placed are very objectionable. 

The escutcheon should be high and spreading. Its chief 
indication is in the development of a large, well-balanced 
udder. 

Score Card for Dairy Cattle. 

Perfect score. 

General Appearance — 24 Points. 

Weight: ' 4 

Disposition: quiet, gentle 2 

Form: triangular, wedge-shaped, symmetrical, straight top 

line 6 

Quality: free from coarseness throughout; skin soft, pliable; 

secretions abundant; hair fine 6 

Temperament: inherent tendency to dairy performance, show- 
ing economic use of food nutrients 6 

Head and Neck — 8 Points. 

Muzzle: broad 1 

Jaw: strong, firmly joined 1 

Face: medium length, clean . 1 

Forehead: broad between eyes, dishing . 1 

Eyes: large, full, mild, bright 1 

Ears: medium size, fine texture; secretions oily and abundant, 

yellow color 1 

Throat: clean 1 

Neck: long, spare, smoothly joined to shoulders, free from 

dewlap 1 

FOREQTJARTERS 7 Points. 

Withers: narrow, sharp 3 

Shoulders: sloping, smooth; brisket light 3 

Forelegs: straight, clean, well set under body ..... 1 

Body — 25 Points. 

Crops: free from fleshiness 1 

Chest: deep, roomy; floor broad 6 

Back: straight, strong; vertebrae open 3 

Ribs: long, deep, sprung, wide apart 3 

Barrel: deep, long, capacious 10 

Loin: broad, strong 2 

Hindquarters — 12 Points. 

Hips: prominent, wide apart 1 

Rump: long, level, not sloping 4 

Pin-bones: wide apart 1 

Tail: neatly set on, long, tapering 1 

Thighs: spare, not fleshy 3 

Hindlegs: well apart, giving ample room for udder ... 2 

Mammary Development — 24 Points. 

Udder: large, very flexible, attached high behind, carrying 

well forward; quarters even, not cut up 10 

Teats: wide apart, uniformly placed, convenient size . . 4 
Mammary Veins: large tortuous, extending well forward, 

branching 4 

Mammary Orifices: large (> 

Total 100 

19 



290 JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 

Breed Characteristics. — The dairy breeds of cattle are 
characterized by the following breed marks including 
weight, quality, constitution, conformation, temperament, 
and adaptation. 

Jersey. — The Jersey breed originated in the Island of 
Jersey in the English Channel. This breed has attained 
wide popularity and is adapted to a variety of conditions. 
The weight of mature Jersey cows ranges from 800 to 1000 
pounds. It is one of the smallest of the recognized dairy 
breeds. 




Fig. 122. — A Jersey cow with breediness and capacity. 

The horns in the bull are rather short and strong. On the 
cow they are longer with greater curvature. The color of the 
Jersey is variable. The base of the body color is usually fawn. 
However, there are numerous shades, such as a yellowish, 
brownish, grayish, reddish or silvery fawn, which may charac- 
terize the breed. In some animals, especially bulls, a large 
part of the body may be nearly black. Such animals are 
usually characterized by dark or black heads, necks, and 
shoulders, thighs, flanks, or other combinations. Some 
animals are practically all dark brown or black. The quality 
of the Jersey is good and its skin secretions are usually very 



BREED CHARACTERISTICS 291 

much in evidence from the standpoint of pliability and 
elasticity. The nervous temperament is highly developed. 
Specimens of the breed are not considered heavy producers 
ordinarily but the quality of the milk is considerably above 
the average. One of the common faults of the Jersey is the 
slack development in the forequarters of the udder. Delicacy 
in constitution is also a recognized fault. The Jersey is widely 
adapted, both as a cow for city use and milk and butter 
production in general. 

Standard of Excellence and Scale of Points for Jersey 
Cattle. 

Bull. 

Head: Points. 

Broad, medium length; face dished; narrow between horns; 
horns medium in size and incurving . . . . . . ■ . . 5 

Muzzle broad, nostrils open, eyes full and bold; entire expres- 
sion one of vigor, resolution and masculinity .... 5 

Neck: 

Medium length, with full crest at maturity; clean at throat . 7 
Body: 

Shoulders full and strong, good distance through from point 
to point, with well-defined withers; chest deep and full 

between and just back of forelegs 15 

Barrel long, of good depth and breadth, with strong, rounded, 

well-sprung ribs 15 

Back straight and strong 5 

Rump of good length and proportion to size of body, and 

level from hip-bones to rump-bones ■ 7 

Loins broad and strong; hips rounded, and of medium width 

compared with female 7 

Thighs rather flat, well cut up behind high, arched flank . 3 

Legs proportionate to size and of fine quality, well apart, 
with good feet, and not to weave or cross in walking . . 5 
Rudimentary Teats: 

Well placed 2 

Hide: 

Loose and mellow 2 

Tail: 

Thin, long, reaching the hock, with good switch, not coarse 

or high at setting-on 2 

Size: 

Mature bulls, 1200 to 1500 pounds 5 

General Appearance: 

Thoroughly masculine in character, with a harmonious blend- 
ing of the parts to each other; thoroughly robust, and such 
an animal as in a herd of wild cattle would likely become 
master of the herd by the law of natural selection and sur- 
vival of the fittest ....:., 15 

Total 100 



292 JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 

Cow. 
Dairy Temperament and Constitution. 

Points. 

Head: 

Medium size, lean; face dished; broad between eyes; horns 
medium size, incurving 3 

Eyes full and placid; ears medium size, fine, carried alert; 
muzzle broad, with wide, open nostrils and muscular lips; 

jaw strong 4 

Neck: 

Thin, rather long, with clean throat, neatly joined to head 

and shoulders 4 

Body: 

Shoulders light, good distance through from point to point, 
but thin at withers; chest deep and full between and just 
back of forelegs 5 

Ribs amply sprung and wide apart, giving wedge shape, with 
deep, large abdomen, firmly held up, with strong muscular 
development 10 

Back straight and strong, with prominent spinal processes; 
loins broad and strong 5 

Rump long to tail-setting, and level from hip-bones to rump- 
bones 6 

Hip-bones high and wide apart 3 

Thighs flat and wide apart, giving ample room for udder . 3 

Legs proportionate to size and of fine quality, well apart, 
with good feet, and not to weave or cross in walking . . 2 

Hide loose and mellow 2 

Tail thin, long, with good switch, not coarse at setting-on . 1 

Mammary Development. 
Udder: 

Large size, flexible and not fleshy 6 

Broad, level or spherical, not deeply cut between teats . . 4 
Fore udder full and well rounded, running well forward of 

front teats .... 10 

Hind udder well rounded, and well out and up behind . . 6 
Teats : 

Of good and uniform length and size, regularly and squarely 

placed 8 

Milk Veins: 

Large, long, tortuous and elastic, entering large and numerous 

orifices 4 

Size: 

Mature cows, 800 to 1000 pounds 4 

General Appearance: 

A symmetrical balancing of all the parts, and a proportion of 
parts to each other, depending on size of animal, with the 
general appearance of a high-class animal, with capacity 
for food and productiveness at pail 10 

Total . 100 



BREED CHARACTERISTICS 



293 



Guernsey. — The Guernsey breed originated in the Island 
of Guernsey, which is located near the Island of Jersey, in 
the English Channel. In many respects the Guernsey is very 
much like the Jersey breed, although the former is larger and 
somewhat stronger in constitution. The production of milk 
and butter-fat is about on a par with the Jersey. The weight 
of the Guernsey cow ranges from 950 to 1050 pounds, being 
somewhat larger than the Jersey breed. The color is variable, 
a reddish shade of fawn prevailing. Reddish and yellowish 




ilHIIIIIIili " 



Fig. 123. — A Guernsey cow exhibiting striking dairy capacity. 



fawn are color characteristics. These colors are often broken 
by white, which usually occurs on the lower part of the body 
and on the legs. The muzzle is buff or flesh color and 
the horns are light or amber. The horns in the bull are 
somewhat shorter than in the cow. The temperament 
is superior, the dairy temperament being characteristic 
of both sexes of the breed. The quality of the Guernsey 
is excellent. It has a mellow, elastic skin and rather fine 
hair. As a whole it is somewhat coarser than the Jersey, 
although it cannot be greatly criticised. The mellow, elastic 



294 JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 

skin, yellowish color and secretions are considered to be of 
great importance by advocates of the breed. The lack of 
uniform breeding qualities and strong udder development, 
chiefly in front, are the main criticisms. 

Standard of Excellence and Scale of Points for Guernsey 

Cattle. 

Bull. 

Counts. 

Dairy Temperament, Constitution — 38 Points. 

Clean-cut, lean face; strong, sinewy jaw; wide muzzle with 
wide-open nostrils; full, bright eye with quiet and gentle 
expression; forehead long and broad ....... 5 

Long, masculine neck with strong juncture to head; clean 
throat. Backbone rising well between shoulder-blades; 
large rugged spinal processes, indicating good develop- 
ment of the spinal cord 5 

Pelvis arching and wide; rump long; wide, strong structure 
of spine at setting of tail. Long, thin tail with good switch; 
thin, incurving thighs 5 

Ribs amply and fully sprung and wide apart, giving an open 
relaxed conformation; thin, arching flank 5 

Abdomen large and deep, with strong muscular and navel 
development, indicative of capacity and vitality ... 15 

Hide firm yet loose, with an oily feeling and texture, but not 
thick 3 

Dairy Prepotency — 15 Points. 

As shown by having a great deal of vigor, style, alertness, 
and resolute appearance 15 

Rudimentaries and Milk Veins — 10 Points. 

Rudimentaries of good size, squarely and broadly placed in 
front of, and free from, scrotum. Milk veins prominent . 10 

Indicating Color of Milk in Offspring — 15 Points. 

Skin deep yellow in ear, on end of bone of tail, at base of 
horns and body generally; hoofs amber-colored ... 15 

Symmetry and Size— 22 Points. 

Color of hair, a shade of fawn with white markings. Cream- 
colored nose. Horns amber-colored, curving and not 
coarse . 8 

Size for the breed: Mature bulls four years old or over, 
about 1500 pounds 4 

General appearance is indicative of the power to beget 
animals of strong dairy qualities 10 

Total . 100 



BREED CHARACTERISTICS 295 

Cow. 

Counts. 

Dairy Temperament, Constitution — 38 Points. 

Clean-cut, lean face; strong, sinewy jaw; wide muzzle with 
wide-open nostrils; full, bright eye with quiet and gentle 
expression; forehead long and broad 5 

Long, thin neck with strong juncture to head; clean throat. 
Backbone rising well between shoulder-blades; large, rugged 
spinal processes, indicating good development of the spinal 
cord 5 

Pelvis arching and wide; rump long; wide, strong structure 
of spine at setting on of tail. Long, thin tail with good 
switch. Thin, incurving thighs 5 

Ribs amply and fully sprung and wide apart, giving an open, 
relaxed conformation; thin, arching flanks 5 

Abdomen large and deep, with strong muscular and navel 
development, indicative of capacity and vitality ... 15 

Hide firm yet loose, with an oily feeling and texture, but not 

thick 3 

Milking Marks Denoting Quantity of Flow — 10 Points. 

Escutcheon wide on thighs; high and broad, with thigh ovals 2 

Milk veins long, crooked, branching and prominent, with 

large or deep wells 8 

Udder Formation — 26 Points. 

Udder full in front 8 

Udder full and well up behind 8 

Udder of large size and capacity 4 

Teats well apart, squarely placed, and of good and even 

size 6 

Indicating Color of Milk — 15 Points. 

Skin deep yellow in ear, on end of bone of tail, at base of 
horns, on udder, teats, and body generally. Hoof, amber- 
colored 15 

Milking Marks Denoting Quality of Flow — 6 Points. 

Udder showing plenty of substance but not too meaty . . 6 

Symmetry and Size — 5 Points. 

Color of hair a shade of fawn, with white markings. Cream- 
colored nose. Horns amber-colored, small, curved, and not 
coarse • 3 

Size for the breed: Mature cows, four years old or over, 
about 1050 pounds 2 

Total . 100 



EXPLANATORY NOTES ON GUERNSEY BREED BY AMERICAN 
GUERNSEY CATTLE CLUB. 

The Guernsey should be: First. A dairy animal with a 
distinctive dairy temperament and conformation, having a 
strong, nervy structure with a corresponding flow of nervous 
energy, and every indication of capacity and vitality. 



296 JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 

Second. In color of hair, a shade of fawn, with white on 
limbs and under part of body are considered the prevailing 
markings, and some degree of uniformity is desirable. 

Third. One of the important distinguishing features of 
the breed is the presence of a yellow color in the pigment of 
the skin, which is indicative of rich golden color in the milk. 
This is very pronounced in the Guernsey and held by her to 
the greatest extent under all conditions of stabling and 
feed. The intensity of this trait is more marked in some 
animals and families than in others, but. it should be kept at 
the highest standard. It is fast being recognized that this 
color is accompanied by a superior flavor in the milk and thus 
in the butter. 

Dairy Temperament. — By "dairy temperament" is 
meant a strong over-ruling predisposition or tendency to 
turn the consumption of food toward the production of 
milk with a high content of solids, especially butter-fat, 
as against the constitutional tendency so often seen to turn 
food into flesh. Even in the strongest dairy breeds there 
are more or less frequent out-crops in male and female of 
the flesh-making temperament. To breed from such 
animals, while we are striving to establish a prepotent dairy 
temperament or tendency, is not wise. All cattle bred 
specifically for dairy purposes should possess a clear and 
decided dairy temperament, for it is that quality of character 
we most desire to establish, enlarge, and perpetuate in the 
Guernsey cow. 

This is especially indicated by the shape of the head, 
showing brain capacity, wide muzzle, open nostril, full, 
bright eyes, feminine neck, and a construction of the back- 
bone indicating a strong flow of nerve power and support 
from the brain to all of the maternal organs. 

Constitution. — In breeding our domestic animals, especially 
for long service, like the dairy cow, it is very important that 
they should have abundant vital power which we call 
"constitution." But constitution must be judged and 
measured by the peculiar function the animal is bred to fulfil. 

With the race horse the function is speed; with the steer, 
the laying on of flesh; with the dairy cow, the production of 



BREED CHARACTERISTICS 297 

milk solids. In all these various functions, the animal 
that is to represent any one of them must show not only 
large capacity in the line of that function, but also the 
ability to endure long and well the strain of such function, 
and keep in good health. Constitution is best indicated by a 
full development at the navel, and strong abdominal walls, 
showing that the animal when in a prenatal state was 
abundantly nourished by the mother through a well- 
developed umbilical cord. 

Prepotency. — In the scale for bulls, for the first time, we 
believe, in the history of dairy breeds, this point is intro- 
duced. The reason we have included it is that " prepotency" 
is the chief consideration in the selection of all male breeding 
animals. The pedigree and conformation is often all that 
can be desired, but because the bull is lacking in prepotent 
breeding power he is an expensive failure. This quality 
is in a sense difficult to perceive or describe, but we know 
certain animals have it in high degree and others fail of it 
completely. It is fairly well indicated by vigor of appear- 
ance, strong resolute bearing, and abundant nervous energy. 
We would distinguish this from an ugly disposition. A 
bull is ugly by the way he is handled rather than by his 
breeding. What we want is strong, impressive blood. A 
dull, sluggish spirit and action we consider indicative of a 
lack of true dairy prepotency, but we would prefer to breed 
to a rather sluggish-appearing bull with first-class rudimen- 
taries than to a stylish one with badly placed rudimentaries. 

Rudimentary Teats. — We consider that a well-balanced 
and well-shaped udder in the cow is largely due to the way 
the rudimentary teats are placed on the sire. If they are 
crowded close together the result is likely to be narrow, 
pointed udders. If they are placed well apart, of good size, 
and well forward of the scrotum, the effect, we think, will 
be to influence largely the production of well-shaped udders 
in the resulting heifers and counteract the tendency to ill- 
shaped udders inheritable from dams deficient in this respect. 
We believe the future excellence of the Guernsey cow will 
be greatly aided by close attention on the part of her breeders 
to this point. 



298 



JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 



Holstein-Friesian. — The Holstein-Friesian breed is a native 
of Holland. The breed ranks as the largest of the dairy 
type. Bulls often weigh as much as 1800 to 2000 pounds, 
the average of the cows being about 1250 pounds. The 
color is black and white. There is a great variation in this 
respect, some animals being nearly black and others largely 
white. There is a tendency to breed more white than 
formerly. In Holland some herds are characterized by a red 
and white color, although this is not characteristic or accep- 




Fig. 124. — A Holstein-Friesian cow showing a typical side wedge and a well- 
balanced udder. 



table in American herds. The quality of the breed is fre- 
quently deficient, as indicated in a thick skin, coarse hair, 
and rough joints. The dairy temperament is not as well 
developed as in some other breeds. There is a decided 
tendency to beefiness in some specimens. The body of 
the Holstein-Friesian is unusually large, giving them great 
feeding and milk-giving capacity. The udders are large and 
often pendulous. The breed is characterized by some un- 
usually large producers. Cases are on record where more 
than 27,000 pounds of milk has been produced annually. The 



BREED CHARACTERISTICS 299 

quality of the milk is not as rich as in other recognized dairy 
breeds. It ranks considerably below the Jersey and the 
Guernsey in this respect. In judging Holsteins, while they 
should be compared with the dairy standard it will fre- 
quently be found that they are not as distinctly developed 
in this direction as either the Guernsey or Jersey breed. The 
chief faults are lack in dairy temperament, drooping rumps, 
and unsymmetrical, pendulous udders. 

Standaed of Excellence and Scale op Points for Holstein- 

Friesian Cattle. 

Bull. 

Counts. 

Head. — Showing full vigor; elegant in contour ...... 2 

Forehead. — Broad between the eyes; dishing 2 

Face. — Of medium length; clean and trim, especially under the 

eyes; the bridge of the nose straight 2 

Muzzle. — Broad with strong lips 1 

Ears. — Of medium size; of fine texture; the hair plentiful and 

soft; the secretions ody and abundant 1 

Eyes. — Large; full; mild; bright . 2 

Horns. — Short; of medium size at base; gradually diminishing 
toward tips; oval; inclining forward; moderately curved 

inward; of fine texture; in appearance waxy 1 

Neck. — Long; finely crested (if the animal is mature); fine and 
clean at juncture with the head; nearly free from dewlap; 

strongly and smoothly joined to shoulders 5 

Shoulders. — Of medium height; of medium thickness, and 
smoothly rounded at tops; broad and full at sides; smooth over 

front 4 

Chest. — -Deep and low; well filled and smooth in the brisket; 
broad between the forearms; full in the foreflanks (or through 

at the heart) 7 

Crops. — Comparatively full; nearly level with the shoulders . . 4 
Chine. — S trong; straight, broadly developed, with open vertebrae . 6 
Barrel. — Long; well rounded; with large abdomen; strongly and 

trimly held up . 7 

Loins and Hips. — Broad; level or nearly level between hook- 
bones; level and strong laterally; spreading out from the chine 
broadly and nearly level; the hook-bones fairly prominent . . 7 
Rump. — Long; broad; high; nearly level laterally; comparatively 
full above the thurl; carried out straight to dropping of tail . 7 

Thurl. — High; broad 4 

Quarters. — Deep; broad; straight behind; wide and full at sides 

open in the twist 5 

Flanks. — Deep; full 2 

Legs. — -Comparatively short; clean and nearly straight; wide 
apart; firmly and squarely set under the body; arms wide, 
strong and tapering; feet of medium size, round, solid and deep 5 

Carried forward 74 



300 JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 

Counts. 

Brought forward 74 

Tail. — Large at base, the setting well back; tapering finely to 
switch; the end of bone reaching to hocks or below; the switch 

full 2 

Hair and Handling. — Hair healthful in appearance; fine, soft 
and furry; skin of medium thickness and loose; mellow under 
the hand ; the secretions oily, abundant, and of a rich brown or 

yellow color 10 

Mammary Veins. — Large; full; entering large orifices; double 
extension; with special development, such as forks, branches, 

connections, etc 10 

Rudimentary Teats. — Large; well placed 2 

Escutcheon. — Largest; finest 2 

General Vigor. — For deficiency discredit from the total received 

not to exceed eight points. 
General Symmetry and Fineness. — For deficiency discredit 

from the total received not to exceed eight points. 
General Style and Bearing. — For deficiency discredit from 

the total received not to exceed eight points. 
Credits for Offspring. — A bull shall be credited one point in 
excess of what he is otherwise entitled to, for each and every 
animal of which he is sire actually entered in the Advanced 
Register, not to exceed ten in number. 

In scaling for the Advanced Register, defects caused solely by 
age, or by accident, or by disease not hereditary, shall not be 
considered. But in scaling for the show ring, such defects shall 
be considered and duly discredited. 

A bull that in the judgment of the Inspector will not reach, 
at full age and in good flesh, 1800 pounds, live weight, shall be 
disqualified for entry in the Advanced Register. 

No bull shall be received to the Advanced Register, that with 
all credits due him, will not scale, in the judgment of the in- 
spector, at least 80 points. (See amendment to Rule IV, an 

exception to these requirements). 

Perfection 100 

Cow. 

Head. — Decidedly feminine in appearance; fine in contour . . 2 

Forehead. — Broad between the eyes; dishing 2 

Face. — Of medium length; clean and trim especially under the 

eyes, showing facial veins; the bridge of the nose straight . . 2 

Muzzle. — Broad with strong lips 1 

Ears. — Of medium size; of fine texture; the hair plentiful and soft; 

the secretions oily and abundant 1 

Eyes. — Large; full; mild; bright 2 

Horns. — Small; tapering finely toward the tips; set moderately 

narrow at base; oval; inclining forward; well bent inward; of 

fine texture; in appearance waxy . 1 

Neck. — Long; fine and clean at juncture with the head; free from 

dewlap; evenly and smoothly joined to shoulders .... 4 

Carried forward 15 



BREED CHARACTERISTICS 301 

Counts. 

Brought forward 15 

Shoulders. — Slightly lower than the hips; fine and even over 
tops; moderately broad and full at sides 3 

Chest. — Of moderate depth and lowness; smooth and moderately 
full in the brisket, full in the foreflanks (or through the heart) . 6 

Crops. — Moderately full 2 

Chine. — Straight; strong; broadly developed, with open vertebrae 6 

Barrel. — Long; of wedge shape; well rounded; with a large 
abdomen, trimly held up (in judging the last item age must be 
considered) 7 

Loin and Hips. — -Broad; level or nearly level between the hook- 
bones; level and strong laterally; spreading from chine broadly 
and nearly level; hook-bones fairly prominent 6 

Rump. — Long; high; broad with roomy pelvis; nearly level later- 
ally; comparatively full above the thurl; carried out straight 
to dropping of tail 6 

Thurl. — High; broad 3 

Quarters. — Deep; straight behind; twist filled with development 
of udder; wide and moderately full at the sides 4 

Flanks. — Deep; comparatively full 2 

Legs. — Comparatively short; clean and nearly straight; wide 
apart; firmly and squarely set under the body; feet of medium 
size, round, solid and deep 4 

Tail. — Large at the base; the setting well back; tapering finely 
to switch; the end of the bone reaching to hocks or below; the 
switch full .... 2 

Hair and Handling. — Hair healthful in appearance; fine, soft 
and furry; the skin of medium thickness and loose; mellow under 
the hand; the secretions oily, abundant and of a rich brown or 
yellow color 8 

Mammary Veins. — Very large, very crooked (age must be taken 
into consideration in judging of size and crookedness); entering 
very large or numerous orifices; double extension; with special 
developments, such as branches, connections, etc 10 

Udder. — Very capacious; very flexible; quarters even; nearly 
filling the space in the rear below the twist, extending well 
forward in the front; broad and well held up . . . . . 12 

Teats. — Well formed; wide apart, plump and of convenient size 2 

Escutcheon. — Largest; finest 2 

General Vigor. — For deficiency discredit from the total re- 
ceived not to exceed eight points. 

General Symmetry and Fineness. — For deficiency discredit 
from the total received not to exceed eight points. 

General Style and Bearing. — For deficiency discredit from the 
total received not to exceed eight points. 

Credits for Excess of Requirement in Production. — A cow 
shall be credited one point in excess of what she is otherwise 
entitled to, for each and every 8 per cent, that her milk or 
butter record exceeds the minimum requirement. 

In scaling for the Advanced Register, defects caused solely by 
age, or by accident, or by disease not hereditary, shall not be 
considered. But in scaling for the show ring, such defects 
shall be considered and duly discredited. 

Perfection 100 



302 



JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 



A cow that in the judgment of the inspector will not reach 
at full age, in milking condition and ordinary flesh, 1000 
pounds live weight, shall be disqualified for entry in the 
Advanced Register. 

No cow shall be received to the Advanced Register that, 
with all credits due her, will not scale, in the judgment of 
the inspector, at least 75 points. (See in last paragraph 
of Rule VI an exception to these requirements.) 





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Fig. 125. — An Ayrshire cow of modern type. 



Ayrshire. — The Ayrshire breed originated in the shire of 
Ayre, Scotland. It is characterized by good dairy form, 
especially in the udder development. The weight of the 
cows ranges from 900 to 1000 pounds, the males ranging 
considerably heavier. The color of the modern Ayrshire 
is largely white, the head and neck or other body parts 
being marked with red or dark brown spots. The horns are 
very characteristic of the breed because of their peculiar 
upright growth. The Ayrshire is strong and vigorous in 
constitution, the barrel capacious, and the temperament fair 



BREED CHARACTERISTICS 303 

in its development as indicating dairy characteristics. The 
quality of the Ayrshire is medium. The udder is one of the 
distinctive qualifications of the breed. It is attached high, 
extends well forward, and is unusually well carried. Pendant 
udders are not common in the breed. The quality of the 
milk is fair, ranking somewhat higher than that from the 
Holstein-Friesian. The breed is adapted to sparse pasture 
conditions. It is hardy, and does well under conditions 
where other less vigorous breeds would fail. The general 
conformation is long, low, and deep in the body. Lack of 
size and pronounced dairy temperament are the chief criti- 
cisms of the breed, although these are not serious. 

Standard of Excellence and Scale of Points for Ayrshire 

Cattle. 

Bull. 
Head — 16 Points. Points 

Forehead: broad and clearly defined 2 

Horn: strong at base, set wide apart, inclining upward . . 1 

Face: of medium length, clean cut, showing facial veins . . 2 

Muzzle: broad and strong without coarseness 1 

Nostrils: large and open 2 

Jaws: wide at the base and strong 1 

Eyes: moderately large, full and bright 3 

Ears: of medium size and fine, carried alert 1 

Expression: full of vigor, resolute and masculine .... 3 
Neck — 10 Points. 

Of medium length, somewhat arched, large and strong in the 
muscles on top, inclined to flatness on sides, enlarging 
symmetrically toward the shoulders; throat clean and free 

from loose skin 10 

FOREQTJARTERS 15 Points. 

Shoulders: strong, smoothly blending into body with good 

distance through from point to point and fine on top . . 3 
Chest: low, deep and full between back and forelegs ... 8 
Brisket: deep, not too prominent and with very little dewlap . 2 
Legs and Feet: legs well apart, straight and short, shanks 
fine and smooth, joints firm, feet of medium size, round, 

solid and deep 2 

Body — 18 Points. 

Back: short and straight, chine strongly developed and open 

jointed 5 

Loin: broad, strong and level 4 

Ribs: long, broad, strong, well sprung and wide apart . . -4 
Abdomen: large and deep, trimly held up with muscular 

development 4 

Flank: thin and arching 1 

Carried forward 59 



304 JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 

Points. 

Brought forward 59 

Hindquarters — 16 Points. 

Rump: level, long from hooks to pin-bones 5 

Hooks: medium distance apart, proportionately narrower than 
in female, not rising above the level of the back ... 2 

Pin-bones: high, wide apart 2 

Thighs: thin, long and wide apart 4 

Tail: fine, long, and set on level with back 1 

Legs and Feet: legs straight, set well apart, shanks fine and 
smooth, feet medium size, round, solid and deep, not to 

cross in walking 2 

Scrotum — 3 Points. 

Well developed and strongly carried 3 

Rudimentaries, Veins — 4 Points. 

Teats of uniform size squarely placed, wide apart and free 
from scrotum; veins long, large, tortuous with extensions 
entering large orifices; escutcheon pronounced and cover- 
ing a large surface 4 

Color — 3 Points. 

Red of any shade, brown, or these with white; mahogany and 

white; each color distinctly defined 3 

Covering — 6 Points. 

Skin: medium thickness, mellow and elastic 3 

Hair: soft and fine 2 

Secretions: oily, of rich brown or yellow color 1 

Style — 5 Points. 

Active, vigorous, showing strong masculine character, temper- 
ament inclined to nervousness but not irritable or vicious 5 
Weight — 4 Points. 

At maturity not less than 1500 pounds 4 

Total .100 

Cow. 
Head — 10 Points. 

Forehead: broad and clearly defined 

Horns: wide set on and inclining upward 1 

Face: of medium length, slightly dished; clean cut, showing 

veins • 2 

Muzzle: broad and strong without coarseness, nostrils large . 

Jaws: wide at the base and strong 1 

Eyes: full and bright with placid expression 3 

Ears: of medium size and fine, carried alert 1 

Neck — 3 Points. 

Fine throughout, throat clean, neatly joined to head and 
shoulders, of good length, moderately thin, nearly free 

from loose skin, elegant in bearing 3 

Forequarters — 10 Points. 

Shoulders: light, good distance through from point to point 

but sharp at withers, smoothly blending into body . 2 

Chest: low, deep and full between back and forelegs ... 6 

Brisket: light 1 

Legs and Feet: legs straight and short, well apart, shanks fine 
and smooth, joints firm; feet medium size, round, solid and 
deep 1 

Carried forward 23 



BREED CHARACTERISTICS 305 

Points. 

Brought forward 23 

Body — 13 Points. 

Back: strong and straight, chine lean, sharp and open- 
jointed 4 

Loin: broad, strong and level 2 

Ribs: long, broad, wide apart and well sprung .... 3 
Abdomen: capacious, deep, firmly held up with strong mus- 
cular development 3 

Flank: thin and arching 1 

Hindquarters — 11 Points. 

Rump: wide, level, long from hooks to pin-bones, a reason- 
able pelvic arch allowed 3 

Hooks: wide apart and not projecting above back nor 

unduly overlaid with fat . 2 

Pin-bones: high, wide apart 1 

Thighs: thin, long and wide apart 2 

Tail: fine, long and set on level with back ...... 1 

Legs and Feet: legs strong, short, straight, when viewed 
from behind and set well apart; shanks fine and smooth, 
joints firm, feet medium size, round, solid, and deep . . 2 
Udder — 22 Points. 

Long, wide, deep but not pendulous or fleshy; firmly 
attached to the body, extending well up behind and far for- 
ward; quarters even; sole nearly level and not indented 
between teats; udder veins well developed and plainly 

visible 22 

Teats — 8 Points. 

Evenly placed, distance apart from side to side equal to 
half the breadth of udder, from back to front equal to one- 
third the length; length 2| to 3^ inches, thickness in 
keeping with length, hanging perpendicular and not taper- 
ing 8 

Mammary Veins — 5 Points. 

Large, long, tortuous, branching and entering large orifices 5 
Escutcheon — 2 Points. 

Distinctly denned, spreading over thighs and extending well 

upward 2 

Color — 2 Points. 

Red of any shade, brown, or these with white; mahogany and 
white, or white; each color distinctly defined. (Brindle 

markings allowed but not desirable.) 2 

Covering — 6 Points. 

Skin: medium thickness, mellow and elastic 3 

Hair: soft and fine 2 

Secretions: oily, of rich brown or yellow color 1 

Style— 4 Points. 

Alert, vigorous, showing strong character; temperament 

inclined to nervousness but still docile 4 

Weight— 4 Points. 

At maturity not less than one thousand pounds .... 4 

Total 100 

20 



306 



JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 



Brown Swiss. — The Brown Swiss breed until recently has 
been bred from a dual purpose standpoint. The Registry 
Association and advocates of the breed are now paying more 
attention to dairy qualities. The breed is horned, solid 
brown in color, excepting the udder which is usually of a 
lighter color. There is usually a light streak of hair on the 
poll, inside the ears and along the back. The muzzle is 




Fig. 126. — A Brown Swiss cow, showing dairy capacity in the general form 
and development. 



mealy colored and the nose, tongue, and switch are black. 
The breed possesses an exceptionally strong, vigorous con- 
stitution. The weight ranges from 1100 to 1300 pounds in 
standard females. However, the average weight is some- 
what less. The general form is inclined to be rather coarse 
and lacking in dairy attainment and refinement. The neck 
is somewhat large and heavy, and the shoulders and thighs 
are inclined to be beefy. The body is capacious, and the 



BREED CHARACTERISTICS 307 

udder usually very well proportioned. The mammary veins 
and wells are medium in size. The quality is only average, 
the skin being too thick, the hair inclined to be coarse, and 
the joints large. In dairy temperament the breed ranks 
fair. It is adapted to rough, mountainous conditions, not 
having become widely disseminated in this country. 



Standard of Excellence and Scale op Points for Brown 
Swiss Cows and Heifers. 

Points. 

Head. — Medium size and rather long 2 

Face. — Dished, narrow between horns and wide between eyes . 2 
Ears. — Large, fringed inside with light colored hair; skin inside 

of ear a deep orange color . 2 

Nose. — Black, large and square with mouth surrounded by mealy 

colored band, tongue black 2 

Eyes. — Moderately large, full and bright 2 

Horns. — Short, regularly set with black tips ...... 2 

Neck. — Straight, throat clean, neatly joined to head, shoulders 

of good length and moderately thin at the shoulder ... 4 

Chest. — Low, deep and full between and back of forelegs . . 6 

Back. — Level to setting on of tail and broad across the loin . . 6 
Ribs. — Long and broad, wide apart and well sprung with thin, 

arching flanks 3 

Abdomen. — Large and deep 5 

Hips. — Wide apart, rump long and broad 4 

Thighs. — Wide with heavy quarters 4 

Legs. — Short and straight with good hoofs 2 

Tail. — Slender with good switch 2 

Hide. — Of medium thickness, mellow and elastic ..... 3 

Color. — Shades from dark to light brown, at some seasons of 

the year gray; white splashes near udder not objectionable, 

light stripe along back. White splashes on body or sides 

objectionable. Hair between horns usually lighter shade than 

body - 4 

Fore udder. — Wide, deep but not pendulous or fleshy, extending 

far forward on the abdomen 12 

Hind udder. — Wide, deep, but not pendulous or fleshy, extending 

well up behind 12 

Teats. — Rather large, set well apart and hanging straight down 8 
Milk Veins. — Large, long, tortuous, elastic and entering good 

wells 6 

Escutcheon. — Well defined, spreading over thighs and extend- 
ing well upward 2 

Disposition. — Quiet 2 

Size. — Mature cows should weigh not less than 1100 pounds . 3 

Total 100 



308 JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 



Bull Same as in Cows and Heifers Except for the Following: 

Points 

Expression. — Full of vigor, resolution, and masculinity ... 3 
Neck. — Of medium length, somewhat arched, large and strong in 
muscles on top, sloping symmetrically to shoulders. Shoulders 

large and strong, smoothly blending into body 10 

Scrotum. — Well developed and strongly carried 3 

Rudimentary Teats. — Squarely placed, wide apart, and free from 

the- scrotum 6 

Mature Bulls. — Should weigh not less than 1600 pounds . . 3 
Dark, smoky skins very objectionable. 



French-Canadian. — The French-Canadian breed it is sup- 
posed originally came from the same stock which forms the 
nucleus of the Jersey and Guernsey breeds. The develop- 
ment of the breed, however, was in the province of Quebec, 
Canada. The size ranks smaller than the Jersey. The breed 
is not as highly developed as the Jersey, and is not widely 
distributed. It is adapted chiefly to colder and more rig- 
orous climates than the Jersey. Compared with this breed, 
it is stronger in constitution and less subject to disease. The 
color of the French-Canadian is black or brown with a yellow- 
ish fawn stripe along the back and around the muzzle. Black 
is preferred in the males. The conformation of the breed is 
very similar to that of the Jersey. The horns are medium 
in size and usually curve outward and then inward. One 
of the chief points in favor of the breed is its hardiness. 
It ranks high in grazing and early maturing qualities. The 
quality of the milk is somewhat lower than the Jersey or 
Guernsey, the average butter-fat test for the breed being 
about 4 per cent. The quality of the breed is especially 
characteristic, as shown in the mellow hide and orange color 
in the ears and around the udder. The breed is important 
more from an authoritative standpoint, being disseminated 
principally in Quebec. 

Dutch Belted. — The Dutch Belted breed is a native of 
Holland. It is characterized by a band or belt of white which 
extends entirely around the body, usually from just back of 
the shoulders or thereabouts to the region of the hook points. 
The remaining portions of the body are almost invariably 



BREED CHARACTERISTICS 



309 



black. The size of the breed ranks smaller than the Holstein, 
comparing more favorably with the Ayrshire in this respect. 
The breed is not especially significant from the dairy stand- 
point, although there are several rather prominent herds in the 
country. The breed is deficient in dairy development, not 
showing the characteristic dairy temperament or udder 
development. The udder is usually small, attached low, and 




Fig. 127.— A Dutch Belted cow. 



the teats placed close together. The breed does not compare 
favorably with the Holstein-Friesian, as its origin would pos- 
sibly indicate. It does not possess a large number of high 
producers. It is especially adapted to favorable pasture 
and feed conditions. The breeding qualities axe unusually 
marked, owing to the almost invariable transmission of the 
belted quality to grade animals. The breed is not widely 
disseminated. It is distinctive principally on account of the 
peculiar color markings. 



310 JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 

Standard op Excellence and Scale of Points for Dutch 
Belted Cattle. 

Cow. 

Points. 

Body. — Color black, with a clearly denned continuous white 
belt. The belt to be of medium width, beginning behind the 

shoulder and extending nearly to the hips 8 

Head. — Comparatively long and somewhat dishing: Broad 

between the eyes. Poll prominent; muzzle fine; dark tongue 6 
Eyes. — Black, full and mild. Horns long compared with their 

diameter 4 

Neck. — Fine and moderately thin and should harmonize in 

symmetry with the head and shoulders 6 

Shoulders. — Fine at the top, becoming deep and broad as they 

extend backward and downward, with a low chest .... 4 
Barrel. — Large and deep with well-developed abdomen; ribs 

well rounded and free from fat 10 

Hips. — Broad and chine level with full loin . 10 

Rump. — High, long and broad . ■ 6 

Hindquarters. — Long and deep, rear line incurving. Tail 

long, slim, tapering to a full switch 8 

Legs. — Short, clean, standing well apart 3 

Udder. — Large, well-developed front and rear. Teats of con- 
venient size and wide apart; mammary veins large, long and 

crooked, entering large orifices 20 

Escutcheon 2 

Hair. — Fine and soft; skin of moderate thickness, of a rich dark 

or yellow color . 3 

Disposition. — Quiet and free from excessive fat 4 

General Condition and apparent constitution 6 

Perfection 100 

Dutch Belted Bull. 

The scale of points for males shall be the same as those given for 
females, except that No. 11 should be omitted and the bull credited 10 
points for size and wide spread, placing of rudimentary teats, and 10 
additional points for perfection of belt. 

Kerry. — The native home of the Kerry is in the Kerry 
Mountains in western Ireland. There are two types of the 
breed, known as the Kerry and the smaller type known as the 
Dexter Kerry. The Kerry is recognized as a dairy animal. 
The weight ranges from 500 to 600 pounds in the females 
and from 700 to 1000 pounds in the males. The color is 
usually black, although red sometimes occurs. White is 
objectionable. The breed is horned and is moderately well 
proportioned in its dairy attainments. The breed is not 
important in this country, although significant from a 



BREED CHARACTERISTICS 



311 



historic standpoint. As a milk producer, the Kerry is 
very good. While the quantity produced is not large it is 
rather rich in butter-fat. The breed is hardy, enduring 
unusual privation. It has been developed under particularly 
adverse feed conditions. It is known in Ireland as the poor 
man's cow. In quality and early maturity the breed ranks 
as average compared with other more prominent breeds. 
Very few specimens have been introduced into this country. 




A Kerry cow. 



Kerry Cattle — Scale of Points. 

BULL. Points. 

General formation and character 25 

Head, horns, and hair 25 

Quality and touch 20 

Color 30 



Total 



100 



Cow. 

General formation and character, head, horns, and hair ... 15 

Body, topline, underline, ribs, setting of tail, and shortness of leg 25 

Udder, size, shape, situation of teats, milk veins and escutcheon 40 

Quality and touch 10 

Color 10 



Total 



100 



CLASS CHARACTERISTICS 313 

Class Characteristics. — The development of the dairy 
animal may be divided into three rather distinct stages or 
periods which include the mature form in the aged dairy 
cow, heifer development, and calves. 

Mature Form. — The mature dairy animal can be judged 
or qualifications depicted from the dairy standpoint reason- 
ably accurately. The chief difficulty in determining the 
value of such animals is during their non-productive period 
or after the cessation of lactation. This brings into use 
reasoning power based on the possible value of the dairy 
animal as determined by quality, conformation, and dairy 
temperament. The udder development is usually a good 
indication of the value of an animal, although it may be 
misleading. 

In judging mature animals, particular stress should be 
placed on present dairy qualifications and the records in 
the herd if they are available. When an animal is selected 
during the lactation period allowance should be made for the 
duration or brevity of time which the animal has been 
milked. Unusual development at the beginning of the 
lactation period and slack development at the end of the 
period may be misleading. However, a close estimate can 
be made by balancing the udder development with the 
other dairy characteristics possessed. In selecting after 
the close of the lactation period, the size and shape of the 
udder, the character of the mammary veins, and the size of 
the wells should all be noticed closely. Proper correlation 
of all these characteristics and other evidences of dairy 
form will usually furnish a close estimate of the value of an 
animal. 

Heifer Development. — In selecting heifers close attention 
should be given to the outcome of such animals. Present 
dairy form or other attributes are valuable, but the possi- 
bilities must be taken into consideration. Stress should be 
placed on the weight for age, quality, constitution, dairy 
temperament, and indications of mammary development. 
Short, shallow-bodied animals, thus lacking in capacity, and 
having slack development otherwise in the constitution and 
mammary system are very objectionable. 



314 



JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 



Dairy Calves. — Dairy calves should be judged in the same 
manner as discussed under the general topic of Selecting 
Live Stock. The individuality should be considered along 
with the probable outcome in dairy form and capacity. 
Evidences of growth, thriftiness, and capacity, both in the 
digestive and mammary systems, should be apparent. The 
small calf with a shallow body and flat ribs never develops 
into a large productive individual. The head should be 
broad, clearlv outlined, the muzzle strong, the neck of 




Fig. 130. 



-An Ayrshire bull exemplifying breed type, quality, and con- 
stitutional development. 



medium length, the body long, broad, and deep, these all 
being suggestive of rapid growth and capacity. Quality 
should be exhibited in the skin, hair, and bone, the latter 
showing evidences of producing an animal with a large frame 
which is directly associated with dairy capacity. 

Breeding Requisites. — The requisites of breeding cattle 
have been fully considered under the chapter on Beef Cattle. 
There are certain factors, however, in connection with dairy 
animals, which should have special consideration. Like 
beef animals, dairy cattle should show evidences of mascu- 



CLASS CHARACTERISTICS 315 

Unity and femininity in the male and female respectively. 
They should also exhibit strong constitutional development, 
good quality, and capacity. In the dairy animal, however, 
special emphasis should be placed on dairy form and capacity, 
this being indicated in the long, deep, spacious barrel. Cor- 
related with this, dairy temperament should be manifested 
in large, bright, keen, expressive eyes; clean, facial outlines; 
and a lean, spare, or open conformation. The development 
of the rudimentaries should be emphasized in males. 

In addition to these qualifications, the breeding female 
should possess striking evidences of strong maternal functions 
or reproductive capacity. This, like the general dairy form 
and capacity, is exhibited in the prominent hook points, 
lengthy hindquarters, broadly placed pin-bones or thurls, a 
deep body, and striking mammary development. Coupled 
with the individual examination of the breeding animal, 
the ancestral records should be closely examined as well as 
the offspring if the animal has attained a sufficient age to 
have animals in the active stage of production. The dairy 
animal which has reached this stage is unusually strongly 
reinforced with evidences of reproductive capacity. Not 
only may the individual be studied from the standpoint of 
present attainment, but the breeding and productive records 
of the ancestors and in certain instances that of the progeny. 
Summing up the discussion, the requisites in the breeding 
animal include evidences of deep dairy development cor- 
related with constitution, quality, nervous temperament, 
and productive capacity. 



Or ^ 




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CHAPTER XII. 
JUDGING SWINE. 

Structure. — The structural development of swine is in a 
general way like that of cattle and sheep. The framework, 
especially in the head and forequarter, fixes the form of 
these parts to a large extent. The neck and hindquarters 
are largely constructed of muscular tissue. The shoulders, 
however, especially in their filling over the sides, are com- 
posed of muscular tissue. It is quite frequent in judging 
to find that the shoulders protrude on top, thus giving an 
open, undesirable condition. The back of the hog, especially 
along the spinous processes, is rather heavily filled with 
muscle and fat tissue in the finished animal. In this respect 
swine are different from sheep, having a larger proportion 
of valuable cuts in the forequarters and body proper. From 
the market standpoint these regions are more important, 
in judging, than in sheep. 

In the region of the loin and coupling there is a large 
amount of muscular tissue. Animals should be thickly 
covered in this region and the flanks should be low and full 
and the sides smooth and even. Like cattle and sheep, 
the form and development of the hindquarters is largely 
determined by muscle and fat development. The ham of 
the hog is especially valuable, it being comparable to the 





EXPLANATION OF FIG. 131 


1— Mouth. 


9— Shoulder. 


18— Back. 


2 — Nostrils. 


10 — Foreflank. 


19 — Loin. 


3— Face. 


11— Chest floor. 


20— Rump. 


4 — Eyes. 


12— Legs. 


21 — Coupling. 


5 — Ears. 


13 — Dew claws. 


22— Hindflank 


6 — Jaws. 


14— Sheath. 


23— Tail. 


7 — Jowl. 


15— Belly. 


24— Thighs. 


8 — Neck. 


16 — Sides or ribs. 
17 — Heart girth. 


25— Hocks. 



(317) 



318 



JUDGING SWINE 




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PURPOSE AND METHOD OF USE 319 

leg of mutton in sheep. In swine the shape of the head 
especially is very largely determined by the bony frame- 
work, next the shoulders, then the body and least of all the 
hindquarters. The importance of these points will be fully 
appreciated in scoring or comparing a class of animals to 
determine merit from the market standpoint. Block animals 
are judged according to the amount, location, and quality of 
the edible products. In swine there is a more uniform 
distribution of natural flesh, and a higher dressing percentage 
than in other animals. The value of these parts therefore 
varies less than in cattle or sheep. 

Purpose and Method of Use. — The carcass of swine is used 
either in the fresh form or in a cured condition. Practically 
all of the cuts, with the exception of the edible parts of the 
viscera, may be prepared in a permanent condition for market 
uses. Portions from the head, neck, and jowl may be 
minced and made into various products for immediate or 
future consumption. Backbones and ribs are usually con- 
sumed in a fresh condition or left intact with the sides. 
Otherwise practically all of the cuts from the hog can be 
prepared intact for future use. Such parts include the 
shoulders, hams, sides, belly meat, and leg portions. When 
prepared in this condition the cuts become standard market 
products. 

There is probably no other animal in which the use is as 
wide or varied. On this account pork products are very 
wide in adaptation among all classes of people. The various 
cuts obtained from the hog are not only prominent from 
the packing-house standpoint, but also from that of the 
farmer and the city patron. No other farm animal can be 
produced as profitably under such a range of conditions. 
The greater uniformity in the value of the various cuts and 
their edibility, in both the fresh and cured form, gives a 
double significance to this type of animal. Knowledge of 
the form of the hog and its value is more widely disseminated 
than that of any other block animal. It constitutes one of 
the main sources of meat, especially among the average 
class or common people. In judging the hog, its adapt- 
ability to the purposes and conditions mentioned should be 
given close consideration. 



320 JUDGING SWINE 

Age. — The age of swine may be determined by the teeth, 
although this method is seldom used. The general appear- 
ance of swine can usually be relied upon to determine the 
age to the extent which it is needed in the class room, show 
ring, or on the farm. Aged boar and sow classes include 
animals two years old or over, this being the upper age limit 
in show yard classifications. The stage between one and 
two years and under one year can usually be determined 
satisfactorily by the general appearance of the animal. 
Furthermore, swine are difficult to handle to determine the 
age by dentition. 

Breed Classification. — Swine are divided into two distinct 
types on a basis of their adaptability to the production of 
pork and lard, and bacon products. Certain breeds of hogs 
go to the market designated as lard or fat hogs, others as 
bacon hogs. The distinction is in the peculiar characteristics 
of the two types which adapt one to the production of an 
average-qualitied edible product and the other to the produc- 
tion of a high-class bacon product characterized by alternate 
layers of fat and lean. The former type has a thick pad of fat 
over the outside of the body, the latter type having a thinner 
outside covering of fat with a characteristic streaking of the 
fat and lean. The classification is made by breeds as follows: 

Fat Type. — Berkshire semifat, Poland-China, Duroc- 
Jersey, Chester White, Hampshire, 1 Cheshire, Victoria, Essex, 
Suffolk, Middle Yorkshire, Small Yorkshire, and Mule-foot. 

Bacon Type. — Large Yorkshire and Tamworth. 

Fat Type.— The qualifications of the fat type of hog, 
while covering many of those which characterize the bacon 
type, have a peculiar significance, as given under several 
important headings, which include age, weight, form, quality, 
constitution, capacity, condition, and maturity. Constitu- 
tion and capacity are of special significance in breeding swine. 
The other qualifications are especially important in consider- 
ing the hog from the market standpoint. 

General View of the Hog. — In judging the hog the quality, 
conformation, style, constitution and vigor should be care- 
fully considered. By quality is meant fineness of bone, 

1 Classed also as a bacon animal, depending on growth and development. 



AGE AND WEIGHT 321 

straight glossy hair, fine, clean skin and a clear-cut contour, 
especially about the head and ears. The bone in the leg 
should be large, straight and strong, the nostrils open, the 
eyes prominent and bright, and the chest, broad, deep and 
full. If an animal is being selected for a breeder, breed 
character and constitution are of special importance. One of 
the most common faults of the hog, especially in some breeds 
is to narrow abruptly behind the shoulders and gradually 
become narrower toward the buttocks, thus giving the 
animal, not only an ungainly appearance, but a very undesir- 
able condition from the market standpoint. Such a con- 
dition is likely to be magnified in the male because of the 
natural tendency to be heavy through the shoulders owing to 
the development of shields. This is a common fault in sows, 
and should be avoided. 

Age and Weight. — -The age at which a hog reaches market 
maturity and the ultimate weight attained at this period is 
dependent on the use or purpose of the animal. The method 
of feeding also bears directly on the problem. A hog grown 
under the proper condition for breeding purposes naturally 
develops into a larger and stronger animal than otherwise. 
Growth takes place during a longer period than when the 
same animal is fed properly for market. A clear distinction 
should therefore be made in judging hogs for breeding and 
market purposes. Special stress should be placed on the 
bone development in a breeding animal because of its in- 
fluence on the duration of usefulness. From the market 
standpoint it is necessary to develop only sufficient bone and 
substance to carry the finished market weight. 

The various breeds of hogs differ greatly in their weight 
for age, growing period, and maturing qualities. The Essex 
is a small early maturing breed, the small size being one 
of the principal objections to the breed. The Tamworth 
is a larger and later maturing breed, the latter characteristic 
being one of the chief objections to them. Weight for age 
and maturing qualities are dependent on the breed, the 
individual, and the method of feeding and management. 
Exceptional weight for age is desirable, providing it is cor- 
related with market demands. A hog weighing 200 to 225 
21 



322 



JUDGING SWINE 



pounds is always in ready demand. Small, unfinished hogs 
or overgrown specimens with excessive waste are not salable 
at remunerative prices. It is therefore better to have less 
weight, more quality, more smoothness and symmetry of 
form than to have extraordinary weight at the expense of 
these attributes. 

Conformation. — The fat type of hog is closely analogous 
to the beef animal in form and development. Consideration 
should be given to the length, width, depth, symmetry and 




Fig. 133. — A Berkshire barrow, showing the desired form, quality, and 
condition in the fat hog. 



compactness, all of which should be closely correlated in the 
utility animal. The form of the breeder is not greatly 
different from the animal used for feeding purposes. The 
principal difference is in the larger, broader, capacious frame 
of the breeding specimen. It is not necessary, therefore, 
to differentiate greatly in judging these two types of ani- 
mals. The body of both should be long, wide, and deep, 
the back slightly arched, the shoulders smooth, the sides 
smooth and even and the loin broad. The animal should have 
good depth, this being largely determined by the spring 



INDICATIONS AND VALUE OF QUALITY 323 

and length of the ribs. The shoulders, sides and thighs 
should be smooth and free from creases or wrinkles. A 
line stretched from the shoulder to the thigh, either at the 
rib spring, mid-body or at the underline should touch 
the parts mentioned. The width should be sufficient 
to furnish the maximum amount of back and loin cuts. 
Occasionally animals taper from the top line toward the 
underline. This is not only objectionable because of the 
decrease for productive purposes, but it renders the animal 
much less capacious as a feeder or breeder than otherwise. 
The nearer the hog conforms to the parallelogram in all of 
its lines and measurements the nearer it approaches the 
ideal. The legs should be short, straight and strong, this 
being especially important in breeding animals. The bone 
should be large, dense and smooth, the pasterns straight and 
strong, and the animal should stand well up on the toes. 
A break in the pasterns such as to allow the animal to 
walk on the dew claws is seriously objectionable. The 
general appearance of the hog should show smoothness, 
symmetry, style, and compactness. Constitution and vigor 
should be clearly evident both in breeding and feeding 
animals. 

Indications and Value of Quality. — Quality indicates both 
texture of bone and carcass and the dressing percentage, 
these determining in a large measure the ultimate value of 
the product. Quality is exhibited largely as in other animals, 
although there are special characteristics which indicate its 
presence or absence. The general appearance of the animal 
should present clean-cut features and outline, there being no 
tendency to grossness or flabbiness in any part. Lack of 
clean-cut, trim lines are especially indicative of inferior 
quality. The indications are seen in an even distribution 
of a fine, silky coat of hair. Coarse hair and frequently 
associated swirls are the most noticeable indications of 
faulty quality. Coarse quality is further indicated by either 
long, coarse, straight or kinky hair or the reverse condition 
in which it curls rather tightly to the body. The latter 
is more objectionable as it detracts, both from the usefulness 
and the general appearance of the animal. Swirls are very 



324 



JUDGING SWINE 




BREEDING AND FEEDING CAPACITY 325 

objectionable, these occurring usually about the head, jowl, 
on the back, or over the rump. 

The bone of the animal is one of the chief indications of 
the quality possessed. A large, coarse, open bone and rough, 
undefined joints are extremely objectionable. While there 
should be sufficient bone to sustain the weight of the 
animal under all conditions, quality should not be sacrificed 
to obtain it in an extreme degree. A bone of somewhat 
smaller size with sufficient quality is more desirable than a 
large, spongy bone devoid of quality. This latter condition 
usually signifies open or loose conformation, which is a very 
objectionable feature. Large, overgrown ears, a heavy, 
flabby jowl, coarse, open shoulders, rough, undefined joints, 
coarse hair and a large, coarse bone are the chief indications 
of objectionable quality. Taken as a whole, there should be 
a general indication of smoothness, compactness and refine- 
ment both in form and finish. 

Constitution and Vigor.^-Constitution is especially signifi- 
cant in the breeding animal. Because of the comparatively 
short period which the feeding animal is maintained, con- 
stitution is not of equal significance. The breeding animal is 
usually maintained for a long period of years, comparatively 
speaking, and to sustain the burden of reproduction and 
development it is necessary to have as much constitution as 
consistent with the size and type of the animal. Con- 
stitution is indicated by a broad, strong head, large, clear, 
bright eyes, a large muzzle, large nostrils and a broad, deep 
chest, the latter indicating capacity for heart and lung 
development. The general appearance, capacity, move- 
ments and demeanor should otherwise indicate a strong or 
weak-constitutioned animal. 

Breeding and Feeding Capacity. — Capacity signifies the 
ability of an animal to economically use sufficient feed to 
attain normal and economic development as a feeder or to 
properly nourish the body and that of the fetus and off- 
spring. A long, broad, deep, capacious body is important 
in accomplishing this end. Capacity is closely coordinated 
with constitution, as one cannot be developed to a maximum 
degree without the other. Capacity indicates roominess of 



326 JUDGING SWINE 

body. This term should not be confused with the coarse- 
qualitied, large, open-framed body formerly described. 
Capacity and compactness should be consistently developed 
in the animal. A cramped chest floor and a narrow floor 
line in the body with insufficient length and width otherwise 
are important indications of insufficient capacity. 

Meaning and Value of Condition. — The term condition is 
used to signify the amount of marketable finish acquired 
by an animal. A hog with a small amount of fat develop- 
ment is said to be in low condition, thus lacking the proper 
amount of fat for placing it in the most acceptable condition 
for market purposes. A high condition may be obtained 
economically or at considerable expense, thus largely elimina- 
ting the possible profit from swine husbandry. When an 
animal is excessively fattened, there is a double loss, as 
superfluous fat is extremely objectionable in market animals. 

The important evidences of condition are not difficult to 
recognize. A high-conditioned hog is smoothly covered with 
fat, thus giving an even, smooth, symmetrical appearance. 
The jowl should be full and firm, the shoulders smooth, well 
filled, and the flanks low. If the flanks are well filled and 
carried low it signifies the general deposition of fat, this 
being one of the last places where fat is deposited at which 
time normal marketable finish is completed. A full, smooth, 
even, symmetrical appearance is indicative of finish desired 
in market animals. 

Maturity. — Maturity has a double significance. It signifies 
the attainment of definite qualifications for two fundamental 
purposes. The term may signify either breeding or market 
maturity. An animal should be matured for breeding pur- 
poses under normal growing conditions to influence the 
growth of a strong, dense bone, full muscle development, and 
to otherwise induce strong constitutional powers primarily 
for reproductive purposes. Market maturity in a hog should 
be attained at six to eight months of age, and to obtain the 
desired weight for age different feeding methods must be 
followed. Indications of forced market maturity are usually 
in evidence in the form, vigor displayed, carriage of body 
and bone development, as indicated in the legs and feet. 



PERCENTAGES OF YIELD 327 

Small bone, an overabundance of fat, weak, low pasterns, 
spreading feet, and stilted carriage usually indicate forced 
maturity. This condition necessarily indicates the posses- 
sion of objectionable qualifications. The comparison used 
should not be taken as absolute but rather as indicative of 
the fundamental meaning of the two conditions. In the mar- 
ket animal these conditions should not be in evidence to an 
extreme degree. The principal requirement in such animals 
is a sufficiently strong bone to maintain the finished weight 
providing no ill effects are caused otherwise. As a breeder, 
however, where normal size, weight for age, constitution, 
capacity, and reproduction are involved, such a condition 
as the above is highly objectionable. Such animals, judged 
from the breeding standpoint, should be subject to extreme 
criticism, and likewise in market animals, where utility is 
depreciated. 

Dressing Percentage. — A well-bred hog with pronounced 
individuality should normally dress from 75 to 85 per cent, 
of the live weight. The dressing percentage is of necessity 
dependent upon the type, age, breeding, individuality, and 
condition. An inferior-bred individual, low in condition, will 
dress a low percentage, as the conformity of the animal to the 
accepted standard and the condition attained influence the 
percentage of edible product obtained from the live animal. 
Young pigs or unfinished shoats will not dress as high as 
older or finished animals respectively. The accumulation of 
fat throughout and over the body parts is largely responsible 
for the ultimate ratio between the live and dressed weight. 

Exceptional individuals or lots of hogs have been known 
to dress as high as 87 to 88 per cent. This is an extreme 
condition, however, and should not be taken as the average. 
A hog in average condition will dress about 75 per cent., and 
one in high condition about 80 per cent. These figures are 
based on averages obtained under normal conditions of breed, 
individuality and condition. 

Percentages of Yield. — The variety of cuts into which a 
hog can be divided varies considerably. The total yield of 
the various cuts mentioned in the following table will vary 
with the market, and to a certain extent depending upon the 



328 



JUDGING SWINE 




Fig. 135. — English and domestic cuts of swine carcass. (Courtesy of 
Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station.) 



A — Long cut ham. 

1 — Short cut ham. 

2 — Loin. 

3— Belly. 

4 — Picnic butt. 

5 — Boston butt. 

6 — Jowl. 

7— Hock. 

8— Fat back. 



English cuts. 

B — Long side or middle. 
Domestic Cuts. 

9 — Clear plate. 
2, 8— Back. 
2, 3, 8— Side. 

4, 7 — Picnic shoulder. 

5, 9— Shoulder butt. 
8, 9 — Long fat back. 

4, 5, 7, 9 — Rough shoulder. 



DETAILS OF FORM 329 

size of the hog and the season of the year. These variations 
will not be, on the average, more than 2 per cent, of the total 
yield. The figures given are based on hogs weighing from 
240 to 275 pounds. 

A hog cut in the following manner will yield the following 
percentages based on live weight. 

Cuts. Per cent. 

Loin 9.00 

Belly 12.00 

Backs 12.00 

Shoulders 9.00 

Hams 12.50 

Lard 13.00 

Total 67.50 

The remaining portion of the animal is included in the 
head, neck, shanks, feet, and viscera, thus constituting 32| 
per cent, of the total weight, making the standard edible 
products from the hog constitute slightly more than two- 
thirds of the total live weight. 

Based on the short-rib method of cutting a hog carcass, 
from heavy weight hogs weighing 300 to 350 pounds, the 
following yields will be available: 

Cuts. Per cent. 

Ribs 37.00 

Hams . 12.50 

Shoulders 8.00 

Lard ... 14.50 

Total 72.00 



This leaves a total of 28 per cent., which is included in the 
head, viscera, and other minor parts of the animal. The 
variation in the two methods of cutting and the size of the 
hog makes a difference of 4| per cent, in the total yield of 
the products. 

Details of Form. — A somewhat better understanding can 
be obtained of the desired qualities of the hog by making a 
detailed study of the various parts as follows. 



330 JUDGING SWINE 

Head. — The head should be short, straight or medium 
in dish and broad between the eyes. The eyes should be 
large, clear, and prominent. Features of the breed or type 
should be especially significant. The head should be deep 
as viewed from the side, showing a straight face or medium 
dish, a large muzzle, and open nostrils. 

Ears. — The ears should be medium in size, erect, semi- 
erect, or pendant, depending on the breed, and covered with a 
short, fine coat of hair. Heavy, coarse, pendant ears indicate 
inferior quality. The Berkshire has an erect ear, the Poland- 
China a semidrooping ear, and the Chester White a droop- 
ing or pendant ear. These factors are not as important in 
judging market hogs as when considering animals from the 
breed type standpoint. 

Jowl. — The jowl should be firm, trim, and closely carried. 
A large, heavy, pendant jowl is objectionable, as it indicates 
coarseness of quality or overdevelopment in condition. A 
smooth, trim jowl is most desirable, as this condition is 
usually significant of quality. Superfluous, flabby flesh 
or fat is objectionable in this region both in breeding and 
market animals. 

Neck. — The neck of the hog should be short, broad, deep, 
and smoothly and evenly blended with the head and shoul- 
ders. A long, thin neck is objectionable as it usually signifies 
inferior breeding, low condition or general unthriftiness. The 
neck of the hog is extremely short, especially in the fat type, 
there being a longer, more pronounced formation in the 
bacon type of animal. 

Shoulders. — The shoulder development of the hog is 
extremely important, as the form of it is indicative of several 
important factors. Large, coarse, open shoulders detract 
seriously from the value of an animal, either for breeding 
or feeding purposes. The same characteristics will be 
transmitted by the breeding animal, and such a condition 
is objectionable in finished animals owing to the relatively 
high value of the cuts in this region. The shoulders should 
be broad, although not to such an extent that the fore- 
width of the body cannot be carried out to the extremity. 
This is one of the common faults of the hog and therefore 



DETAILS OF FORM 331 

attention should be given in overcoming this objectionable 
characteristic. The shoulders should be broad, level, smooth, 
and compactly covered over the top and sides. The depres- 
sion characteristic of the so-called open shoulder indicates 
lack of condition and coarseness of quality. 

Chest.— The chest measurement is determined by the 
width and depth of the animal attained through the body 
part back of the shoulders. There should be no depression 
in this region, as such would interfere with the normal 
constitutional capacity and therefore with the future useful- 
ness. Good width and depth in the heart-girth region are 
significant of strength and vigor. Any tendency toward 
narrowness at the base of the chest is extremely objectionable. 

Back. — The back should be long, uniform in width from 
shoulders to hindquarters, smooth, and slightly arched. 
There is a decided tendency for hogs to narrow as the hind- 
quarters are approached. Special discrimination should be 
made against an animal of this conformation. 

Sides and Ribs. — The length and depth of the body are 
determined largely by the formation of the ribs. They 
should spring squarely from the back to give width of body, 
and be long and extend low to give depth of body. The coup- 
ling should be short. The sides should be smooth, extend on 
a direct line with the shoulders and thighs and be free from 
wrinkles, creases, or any other characteristic rough condition. 

Flanks. — The flanks should be full and low. High flanks 
detract from the usefulness and general appearance of an 
animal. They give the impression of ranginess which is 
objectionable. They also indicate weak constitution, espe- 
cially the foreflank, which determines chest capacity in a 
large measure. An animal cut high in the hindflank seldom 
breeds or feeds well. 

Feet and Legs. — The legs should be short, straight, strong, 
and squarely placed under the body. The pasterns should 
be upright and the animal stand well up on the toes. Low, 
weak pasterns are very undesirable. 



332 JUDGING SWINE 

Score Card for Fat Hogs. 

Perfect score. 

General Appearance — 40 Points. 

Weight: score according to age 6 

Form: low set, rectangular, broad, deep, long, smooth, sym- 
metrical 10 

Quality: refined head, smooth, sides free from wrinkles, fine 
straight hair, clean bone 10 

Condition: thick, even covering of firm flesh 10 

Temperament: lymphatic, disposed to fatten 4 

Head and Neck— 7 Points. 

Head: short, broad, deep 

Snout: comparatively short, fine 

Eyes: large, bright, wide apart 

Face: moderately dished, according to breed, broad between 
the eyes : 

Ears: medium size, pointed, thin, carried well up ... 

Jowl: full, deep, trim 

Neck: thick, deep, short, top line sharply curved upward 

FOREQTJARTERS — 8 points. 

Shoulder: wide, smooth on sides, compact on top ... 4 

Breast: prominent, full 2 

Legs: short, straight, strong, clean bone 2 

Body — -31 points. 

Chest: deep, wide, full, no constriction 3 

Back: broad, thickly covered, well supported, arched . 10 

Sides: long, deep, smooth, firm, thickly covered .... 6 

Loin: broad, thickly covered 10 

Flank: deep, full, underline straight 2 

Hindquarters — 14 points. 

Rump: long, broad, level 2 

Ham: wide, deep, full, well rounded, firm 10 

Legs: short, straight, strong, clean bone 2 

Total 100 

Breed Characteristics. — The various breeds are character- 
ized by the differences in type, size, weight, color markings, 
thriftiness, adaptability, maturity and condition as follows : 

Berkshire. — The Berkshire is a native of the Shire of 
Berk, England. The breed is important, not only as a 
typical breed in itself, but also from its use in developing 
other newer breeds. The Berkshire figured prominently 
in the development of the Poland-China breed of swine in 
Ohio. Ordinarily this breed classes among the fat types. 
The writer gives it a place between the fat and bacon types, 
designating it as a semifat breed. Considered from the 



BERKSHIRE 



333 



standpoint of its use in specific bacon production it comes 
much nearer filling these requirements than any of the other 
breeds belonging to the fat type. In size the Berkshire 
ranks among the larger breeds. The average weight of 
boars in fully mature condition ranges from 500 to 600 
pounds. The color is black with the exception of six white 
points, namely : the snout, the four feet, and the tip of the 
tail. White may appear on the forearm, shoulder or jowl 




Fig. 136. — Berkshire boar. 



without disqualification. One or more black points may 
also be present. However, they are objectionable, among 
most American breeders. The form is smooth, compact, 
and unusually neat, clean and trim in outline. The head is 
short, and either moderately or excessively dished, depend- 
ing upon the fancy of the breeder. The face is broad, the 
poll usually wide, the ears erect and the neck and jowl 
smooth and firm. The Berkshire is unusually alert, expres- 
sive in facial outlines and possesses unusual refinement 
otherwise, being a typical show hog. 



334 JUDGING SWINE 

Standard of Excellence and Scale of Points for Berk- 
shire Swine. 

Points. 

Color.— Black, white feet, face and tip of tail, but skin and hair 
occasionally showing tinge of bronze or copper color. An occa- 
sional splash of white not objectionable; lack of either of white 
points admissible 3 

Face and Snout. — Face well dished and broad between eyes; 
snout short and broad 7 

Eyes. — Prominent, clean, clear, large, dark hazel or gray ... 2 

Ears.— Medium size, setting well apart, carried fairly erect, 
inclining forward, especially with age 3 

Jowl. — Full, firm, not flabby or hanging too low, running back well 
on neck 3 

Neck. — Full, short and slightly arched, broad on top, well con- 
nected with shoulder 3 

Hair. — Fine, straight, smooth, lying close to and covering the 
body well; free from bristles 3 

Skin. — Smooth and mellow 3 

Chest. — Deep, full and wide, with good heart girth .... 6 

Shoulder. — Smooth and even on top and in line with side . . 6 

Side. — Deep, smooth, well let down, straight side and bottom 
lines . . 6 

Back. — Broad, full, strong, level or slightly arched; ribs well 
sprung • ■ 10 

Flank. —Extending well back and low down on leg, making nearly 
a straight line with lower part of side 5 

Loin. — Full, wide and well covered with flesh 6 

Ham. — Deep, wide, thick and firm, extending well up on back 
and holding thickness well down to hock 10 

Tail. — Well up on line with back, neither too fine, short or 
tapering 2 

Legs and Feet. — Straight and strong, set wide apart, short 
in pastern, with hoofs nearly erect, capable of carrying great 
weight 10 

Size. — Size all that is possible without loss of quality or symmetry 
with good length. Weight in good condition, boars at 12 
months, 350 to 450 pounds; at 24 months, 500 to 700 pounds; 
sows at 12 months, 350 to 400 pounds; at 24 months, 500 to 700 
pounds 6 

Appearance and Character. — Vigorous, attractive, of good 
disposition, firm and easy movement 6 

Total 100 

Poland-China. — The Poland-China ranks as one of the 
extreme fat breeds. It is an American product characterized 
by an unusual prevalence or accumulation of outside fat. 
The weight of boars may reach as high as 500 to 600 
pounds or more in mature breeding specimens. Like the 
Berkshire, the breed is characterized by a solid black color 



POLAND-CHINA 



335 



with the exception of six white points, namely, the snout, 
four feet and tip of tail. One or more black points are 
sometimes found but they are not desirable. This, however, 
is a fad or fancy adhered to by breeders. One of the chief 
objections to the Poland-China is the method of breeding 
which has been followed, this reducing the size and vigor 
of the breed as a whole. The modern type of animal is 
characterized by larger bone, more vigor, and rustling quali- 




Fig. 137. — Poland-China boar. 



ties. In the last decade considerable attention has been 
given to the improvement of the breed in these respects. 
The head of the Poland-China is broad and short, the face 
usually straight, the neck short and full, the body long, wide, 
deep, and the animal as a whole comparatively low set. 
Ears which best characterize the breed are semidrooping, 
the upper one-third of the ear breaking over. The jowl is 
usually heavy, the legs short, and the thighs plump. Lack 
of size, small litters, a drooping rump, and inferior rustling 
qualities are faults with the breed. 



336 JUDGING SWINE 

Standard of Excellence and Scale of Points for Poland- 
China Swine. 

Points. 

Head and Face. — -Head short and wide; cheeks full; jaws broad, 
forehead high and wide; face short, smooth, wide between the 
eyes, tapering from eyes to point of nose and slightly dished 
surface, even and regular 4 

Objections: Head long, narrow, coarse; forehead low and narrow 
or contracted, lower jaw extending beyond upper; face long; 
straight and narrow between the eyes; nose coarse, thick or 
crooked, ridgy, or dished as much as a Berkshire. 

Eyes. — Large, prominent, bright, lively, clear and free from 
wrinkled or fat surroundings 2 

Objections: Small, dull, bloodshot, deepset or obscure; vision 
impaired by wrinkles, fat or other causes. 

Ears. — Small, thin, soft, silky, attached to the head by a short 
and small knuck, tips pointing forward and slightly outward, 
and the forward half drooping gracefully, fully under control of 
animal, both of same size, position and shape 2 

Neck. — Wide, deep, short, and nicely arched at top from poll of 
head to shoulder 2 

Objection: Long, narrow, thin, flat on top, not extending down 
to breast bone, tucked up. 

Jowl. — Full, broad, deep, smooth and firm, carrying fulness back to 
near point of shoulders, and below line of lower jaw, so that lower 
line will be as low as breast-bone when head is carried up level 2 

Objections: Light, flabby, thin, wedge-shaped, deeply wrinkled, 
not drooping below line of lower jaw and not carrying fulness 
back to shoulder and brisket. 

Shoulder. — -Broad, deep and full, not extending above the line of 
back and being as wide on top as on back, carrying size down 
to line of belly and having good lateral width 6 

Objections: Narrow and not same depth as body, narrow at top 
or bottom, extending above line of back, less than body in 
breadth at top or bottom portions, or lacking in lateral width, 
shields on boars under eight months of age, or large, heavy 
shields on hogs under eighteen months of age. 

Chest. — Large, wide, deep, roomy, indicating plenty of room for 
vital organs, making a large girth just back of shoulders, the 
breast-bone extending forward so as to show slightly in front 
of the legs and extending in a straight line back to end of breast- 
bone, showing a width of not less than six inches between fore- 
legs in a large, full-grown hog 12 

Objections: Flat, pinched, narrow at top or either end of breast- 
bone; breast-bone crooked or not extending slightly in front 
of forelegs. 

Back and Loin. — Broad, straight or slightly arched, carrying 
same width from shoulder to ham, surface even, smooth, free 
from lumps, crease or projection, not too long, but broad on top, 
indicating well-sprung ribs, should not be higher at top than 
at shoulder, and should not fill at junction with side so that 
a straight-edge placed along top of side will touch all the way 
from point of shoulder to point of ham; should be shorter than 
lower belly line 14 

Carried forward 44 



POLAND-CHINA 337 

Points. 

Brought forward 44 

Objections: Narrow, creased back of shoulders, swayed or hollow, 
drooping below a straight line, humped or wrinkled, too long, 
or sunfish shaped, loin high, narrow, depressed or uneven, width 
at side not as much as shoulder and ham. 

Sides and Ribs. — Sides full, smooth, firm and deep, carrying 
sides down to belly and evenly from ham to shoulder, ribs long, 
strong, well sprung at top and bottom 10 

Objections: Flat, thin, flabby, pinched, not as full at bottom as 
at top, drawn in at shoulder so as to produce a crease, or pinched 
or tucked up and in as it approaches the ham, lumpy, or uneven 
surface, ribs flat or too short. 

Belly and Flank.— Wide, straight and full, dropping as low as 
flank at bottom of chest, back of foreleg, making a straight line 
from lore-legs to hindlegs; flank full and out even with surround- 
ing portions of body, belly at that point dropping down on a hne 
with lower line of chest; the loose skin connecting ham and 
belly being on a line even with bottom of side 4 

Objections: Belly narrow, pinched, sagging or flabby, flank thin, 
tucked up or drawn in. 

Hams and Rump. — Hams broad, full, long and wide. They 
should be as wide at point of the hip as at the swell of ham. 
Buttocks large and full, should project beyond and come down 
upon and fill full between the hocks. The lower front part of 
the ham should be full, and stifle well covered with flesh and a 
gradual rounding toward the hock. Rump should have a 
rounded slope from loin to root of tail; same width as back and 
filling out full on each side and above the tail . . . . . 10 

Objections: Ham narrow, short, thin, not projecting beyond and 
coming down to hock; cut up too high in crotch twist; lacking 
in fulness at top and bottom, lacking in width from stifle straight 
back, lower forepart thin and flat, straight from root of tail to 
hock; buttocks light, thin or flabby. Rump flat, narrow and 
peaked at root of tail, too steep. 

Feet and Legs. — Legs medium length, straight, set well apart 
and squarely under body, tapering, well muscled and wide 
above knee and hock, below hock and knee round and tapering, 
capable of sustaining weight of an animal in full flesh without 
breaking down, bone firm and fine texture, pasterns short and 
nearly upright; feet firm, short, tough and free from defects . 10 

Objections: Legs long, slim, coarse, crooked, muscles small above 
hock and knee, bone large, coarse, as large at foot as above knee, 
pasterns long and slim, crooked or weak, the hocks turned in 
or out of straight line, legs too close together, hoofs long, slim 
and weak, toes spreading or crooked or unable to bear up weight 
of animal without breaking down. 

Tail. — Well set on, smooth, tapering and carried in a curl . . 1 

Objections: Coarse, long, crooked or hanging straight down like a 
rope. 

Coat. — Fine, straight, smooth, laying close to and covering the 
body well, not clipped, evenly distributed over the body . . 3 

Carried forward 82 



338 JUDGING SWINE 

Points. 

Brought forward 82 

Objections: Bristles, hair coarse, harsh, thin, wavy or curly, 
swirls, standing up, ends of hair split and brown, not evenly 
distributed over all the body except belly. Clipped coats 
should be cut 1.5 points. 

Color. — Black, with white in face and lower jaw, white on feet 
and tip of tail, a few small, clear white spots on body not objec- 
tionable 4 

Objections: Solid black, more than one-fourth white, sandy hair 
in spots, a grizzled or speckled appearance. 

Size. — Large for age and condition. Boars two years old and over 
if in good flesh, should weigh not less than 500 pounds. Sows 
same age and condition, not less than 450 pounds. Boars 
eighteen months old, in good condition, not less than 400 
pounds; sows 350 pounds. Boars twelve months old, not less 
than 300 pounds; sows 300 pounds. Boars and sows six months 
old, not less than 150 pounds. Other ages in proportion . . 5 

Objections: Overgrowth, coarse, gangling, or hard to fatten at 
any age. 

Action and Style. — Action easy, vigorous, quick and graceful. 
Style attractive, high carriage and in male testicles should be 
of same size and carriage readily seen and yet not too large . 3 

Objections: Slow, dull, clumsy, awkward, difficulty in getting 
up when down, low carriage, wabbling walk. In males testicles 
not easily seen, not of same size or carriage, too large, or only 
one showing. 

Condition. — Healthy, skin clear of scurf, scales or sores, soft 
and mellow to the touch, flesh fine, evenly laid on and free from 
lumps or wrinkles. Hair soft and lying close to the body, good 
feeding qualities .... 2 

Objections: Unhealthy skin, scaly, wrinkly, scabby, or harsh, 
flabbiness or lumpy flesh, too much fat for breeding. Hair 
harsh, dry and standing up from body, poor feeders, deafness, 
partial or total. 

Disposition. — Quiet, gentle and easily handled 2 

Objections: Cross, restless, vicious or wild. 

Symmetry of points 2 

Total 100 

Disqualifications. 

Form. — Upright ears; small, cramped chest; crease back of shoulders 
and over back so as to cause a depression in back easily noticed; 
deformed or badly crooked legs; feet broken down so that' animal 
walks on pastern joints. 

Size. — China build or not two-thirds large enough for age. 

Condition.— Excessive fatness; barrenness; deformed; seriously dis- 
eased; total blindness, caused by defective eyes, or by reason of fat 
or loose and wrinkled skin over the eyes. 

Score. — Less than sixty points. 

Pedigree. — Not eligible to record. 



DUROC-JERSEY 



339 



Duroc- Jersey. — The Duroc-Jersey is one of the leading 
fat breeds. It is characterized by a red color which may 
vary from light to dark. A tendency to black is objection- 
able, a cherry red color being preferred. The size of the 
Duroc-Jersey is on the average about the same as the Poland- 
China or Chester White. Mature boars may reach as high as 
600 pounds or more in weight, the sows averaging 100 
pounds less at the same age and condition. The breed 
has good rustling qualities and is very popular in many 
sections. A tendencv to coarse bone and lack of refinement 




Fig. 138. — Duroc-Jersey boar. 



are objections to the breed. The head is reasonably short 
with a moderate dish. The ears are drooping or arching 
in appearance. The neck is short and full, the shoulders 
reasonably compact, the sides of good length and the quarters 
or thighs reasonably smooth and well filled. The principal 
points in favor of the breed are the size, rustling qualities, 
and their economic producing qualities. Excessive fat 
formation, lack of quality, smoothness, and refinement are 
the principal objections. As a whole, however, the breed 
conforms very closely to the fat-hog type. In many respects 
it favors the Poland-China in size, general form and finish^ 



340 



JUDGING SWINE 



Scale op Points for Duroc-Jersey Swine. 

Points. 

Head 4 

Eyes 2 

Ears 2 

Neck 2 

Jowl 2 

Shoulder 6 

Chest 12 

Back and Loin 14 

Sides and Ribs 9 

Belly and Flank 4 

Ham and Rump 10 

Feet and Legs 9 

Tail 1 

Coat 3 

Color 2 

Size 8 

Action and Style 3 

Condition 2 

Disposition 2 

Symmetry of Points 3 

Total . . . ■ 100 

Chester White. — The Chester White breed received its 

name from the solid white color characteristics. 1 Bluish 




139.— Chester White boar. 



spots on the skin are permissible. The breed ranks as a 
strictly fat breed. Mature boars range in weight from 500 

1 Originated in Chester County, Pa. 



CHESTER WHITE 341 

to 650 pounds. It ranks in size with the other leading fat 
breeds. One of the principal objections to it is its general 
lack of refinement. The ears are often heavy and extremely 
pendant, the shoulders prominent, and the hair coarse and 
curly. The head is rather large, the face straight, the jowl 
large and the body proper inclined to be rough. The breed 
has the extreme tendency to narrow materially from the f ore- 
to the hindquarters. 

The O. I. C. breed, meaning the Ohio Improved Chester 
White, is merely an offspring from the original Chester 
White, having been decidedly improved in quality and 
conformation. The size has been somewhat decreased and 
the attributes of quality and compactness introduced. 
Considered as a whole, the improved form of the Chester 
White is a very acceptable breed. The body has good width 
and carries out well. Coarseness in bone, prominent shoul- 
ders and general lack of quality are still faults, however, 
with some specimens of the breed. 

Standard of Excellence and Scale of Points for O. I. C. 

Swine. 

Points. 

Color. — White. Black spots in hair disqualify, but blue spots 
in hide (commonly known as freckles), while objectionable, do 
not argue impurity of blood 2 

Objections: Color any other than white. 

Head and Face. — Head short and wide; cheeks neat (not too 
full); jaws broad and strong; forehead medium, high and wide; 

. face short and smooth; wide between the eyes, which should 
be prominent, clear, and bright and free from fat surroundings; 
nose neat, tapering and slightly dished 5 

Objections: Head long, narrow or coarse; forehead low and nar- 
row; jaws contracted and weak; face long, narrow and straight; 
nose coarse, clumsy or dished like a Berkshire; eyes small, 
deeply sunken or obscure ; impaired vision. 

Ears. — Medium size; soft; not too thick; not clumsy; pointing 
forward and slightly outward; drooping gracefully and fully 
under control of the animal 2 

Objections: Too large or too small; coarse; thick; stiff or upright, 
drooping too close to face; not under control. 

Brisket. — Full; well let down; joined well to jowl in line with belly 3 

Objections: Narrow; tucked up or depressed. 

Jowl. — Smooth; neat; firm; full; carrying fulness well back to 
shoulders and brisket when head is carried up level ... 2 

Objections: Light; rough and deeply wrinkled; too large and 
flabby; not carrying fulness back to shoulders and brisket. 

Carried forward 14 



342 JUDGING SWINE 

Points. 

Brought forward 14 

Neck. — Wide; deep; short and nicely arched; neatly tapering 
from head to shoulder 3 

Objections: Narrow, thin; long; flat on top; tucked up; not extend- 
ing down to breast-bone. 

Shoulders. — Broad; deep and full; extending in line with the 
side, and carrying size down to line of belly 6 

Objections: Deficient in width or depth; extending above line of 
back; thick beyond line of side and hams; shields on boars too 
coarse and prominent. 

Chest and Heart Girth. — Full around the heart and back of 
the shoulders; ribs extending well down; wide and full back of 
forelegs 10 

Objections: Narrow; pinched; heart girth less than flank measure 
or length of body from top of head to root of tail; or creased 
back of shoulders. 

Back. — Broad; straight or slightly arched; uniform width; free 
from lumps or rolls; same height and width at shoulder as at ham 7 

Objections: Narrow; swayed; humped; creasing back of shoul- 
ders; sunfish-shaped; uneven width; lumps or rolls. 

Sides. — Full; smooth; deep; carrying size down to line of belly; 
even with line of ham and shoulder 5 

Objections: Flat; thin; flabby; uneven surface; compressed at 
bottom; shrunken at shoulder and ham. 

Ribs. — Long; well sprung at top and bottom; giving animal a 
square form 7 

Objections: Too short; flat. 

Loin. — Broad and full 7 

Objections: Narrow; depressed. 

Belly. — Same width as back; full; straight; drooping as low at 
flank as at bottom of chest; line of lower edge running parallel 
with sides 4 

Objections: Narrow; pinched; sagging or flabby. 

Flank. — Full and even with body 2 

Objections: Thin, tucked up or drawn in. 

Ham and Rump. — Broad; full; long; wide and deep; admitting 
of no swells; buttock full, neat and clean; stifle well covered 
with flesh, nicely tapering toward the hock; rump slightly 
rounding from loin to root of tail, same width as back, making 
an even line with sides 10 

Objections: Narrow; short; not filled out to stifle; too much cut 
up in crotch or twist; not coming down to hock; buttocks 
flabby; rump flat, narrow, too long, too steep, sharp or peaked 
at root of tail. 

Tail.— Small; smooth; nicely tapering; root slightly covered with 
flesh; carried in a curl 2 

Objections: Coarse; too long; clumsy; straight. 

Legs. — Medium length; strong and straight; set well apart and 
well under body; bone of good size; firm; well muscled; wide 
above knee and hock, round and tapering below knee and hock, 
enabling the animal to carry its weight with ease; pasterns 
short and nearly upright 5 

Carried forward 82 



HAMPSHIRE 343 

Points. 

Brought forward 82 

Objections: Too short or too long; weak; crooked; too close 

together; muscles weak; bone too large and coarse, without 

taper; pasterns long, crooked or slim. 
Feet. — Short; firm; tough; animal standing well up on toes . . 8 
Objections: Hoofs long, slim, weak; toes spreading, crooked or 

turned up. 
Coat. — Fine; either straight or wavy, with preference for straight; 

evenly distributed and covering the body well; nicely clipped 

coats, no objection 3 

Objections: Bristles; swirls; hair coarse, thin, standing up, not 

evenly distributed over all the body except the belly. 
Action. — Easy and graceful; high carriage; active; gentle and 

easily handled. In males testicles should be readily seen, and 

of same size and carriage 3 

Objections: Sluggish; awkward; low carriage; wild; vicious. In 

males, testicles not distinctly visible, or not of same size and 

carriage. 
Symmetry. — A fit proportion of the several parts of the body to 

each other, forming a harmonious combination 4 

Objections: A disproportionate development in one or more 

points; or lack of proper development in any point. 

Total 100 

Hampshire. — The Hampshire or Thin Rind, as it is some- 
times designated, is said to be a native of Hampshire, 
England, although the origin is somewhat obscure. The breed 
is usually characterized by a white belt, which completely 
encircles the body, beginning at the back of the forelegs or 
shoulder origin and extending back, sometimes about midway 
on the body. The forefeet and legs are usually white, the 
remainder of the body being solid black. Some animals 
are almost pure black. This standard is used sometimes 
to avoid the extension of the belt over the body which 
should range from four to twelve inches wide. . Black speci- 
mens are not uncommon. The breed has been classed both 
in the fat and bacon types. Barrows have been shown 
mostly in fat classes. The size of the Hampshire ranges 
from 400 to 500 pounds in mature breeding males. Usually, 
however, this weight is not obtained under average con- 
ditions. The head of the Hampshire is of medium size, 
the face straight, and rather long and full. The ears are 
usually erect, the jowl is trim, the shoulders smooth and 
compact, the back slightly arched, the sides smooth and 



344 



JUDGING SWINE 



deep, thus characterizing good, useful form. The legs are 
somewhat long, although reasonably strong and straight. 
The breed is very popular considering the time of introduc- 
tion into this country. It has shown a good account of 
itself in individual, lot, and car-load showings in some of the 
larger live stock shows. 




Fig. 140. — Hampshire sow. 

Standard of Excellence and Scale of Points for Hamp- 
shire Swine. 

Points. 

Head and Face. — Head medium length, rather narrow, cheeks 

not full; face nearly straight and medium width between the 

eyes, surface even and regular 4 

Objections: Head large, coarse and ridgy, nose crooked or much 

dished. 
Eyes. — Bright and lively, free from wrinkles or fat surroundings 2 
Objections: Small, deep or obscure, or vision impaired by fat or 

other cause. 
Ears.— Medium length, thin, slightly inclined outward and 

forward .... 2 

Objections: Large, coarse, thick, large or long knuck, drooping or 

not under good control of the animal. 
Neck. — Short, well set to the shoulders, tapering from shoulder 

to head 2 

Objections: Long, thick or bulky. 

Jowl. — Light and tapering from neck to point, neat and firm . 2 

Objections: Large, broad, deep or flabby. 

Shoulders. — Deep, medium width and fulness, well in line with 

back g 

Objections: Narrow on top or bottom, thick beyond line with 

sides and hams. 

Carried forward 18 



HAMPSHIRE 345 

Points. 
Brought forward 18 

Chest. — Large, deep and roomy; full girth, extending down even 
with line of belly 12 

Objections: Narrow at top or bottom; small girth, cramped or 
tucked up. 

Back and Loin. — Back straight or slightly arched; medium 
breadth, with nearly uniform thickness from shoulders to hams 
and full at loins; sometimes higher at hips than at shoulders . 15 

Objections: Narrow, creased or dropped behind shoulders; surface 
ridgy or uneven. 

Sides and Ribs. — Sides smooth, full, firm, carry size evenly 
from shoulders to hams; ribs strong, well sprung at top and 
bottom 8 

Objections: Sides thin, flat, flabby or creased; ribs not well 
sprung. 

Belly and Flank. — Straight and full, devoid of grossness; flank 
full and running nearly on line with sides 6 

Objections: Belly sagging or flabby; flank thin or tucked up. 

Hams and Rump. — Hams of medium width, long and deep; rump 
slightly rounded from loin to root of tail; buttock full, neat and 
firm, devoid of flabbiness or excessive fat 10 

Objections: Ham narrow, cut too high in crotch, buttock flabby, 
rump too fat, too narrow or too steep, or peeked at root of tail. 

Legs and Feet.- — Legs medium length, set well apart and 
squarely under body, wide above knee and hock, and rounded 
and well muscled below, tapering, bone medium, pasterns 
short and nearly upright, toes short and firm, enabling the 
animal to carry its weight with ease 10 

Objections: Legs too long, slim, crooked, coarse or short; weak 
muscles above hock and knee-bone large and coarse and legs 
without taper, pasterns too long to correspond with length of 
leg, too crooked or too slender; feet long, slim and weak; toes 
spreading, too long, crooked or turned up. 

Tail. — Medium length, slightly curled .......'. 1 

Objections: Coarse, long, clumsy, swinging like a pendulum. 

Coat. — Fine, straight, smooth 2 

Objections: Bristles or swirls, coarse or curly. 

Color. — Black, with exception of white belt encircling body, in- 
cluding forelegs 2 

Objections: White running high on hindlegs, or extending more 
than one-fourth length of body, or solid black. 

Size. — Large for conditions: boar, two years and over, 450; sow, 
same age, 400; eighteen months boar, 350; sow, 325; twelve 
months boar or sow, 300; six months, both sexes, 140 . . 5 

Action and Style. — Active, vigorous, quick and graceful; style, 
attractive and spirited 4 

Objections: Dull, sluggish and clumsy. 

Condition. — Healthy, skin free from all defects, flesh evenly laid 
on and smooth and firm, not patchy, and devoid of all excess 
of grossness .- 4 

Objections: Skin scurfy, scaly, mangy or otherwise unhealthy; hair 
harsh, dwarfed or cramped, not growthy. 

Disposition. — Docile, quiet and easily handled ..... 3 

Objections: Cross, restless, vicious or with no ambition. 

Total 100 



346 JUDGING SWINE 

Disqualifications. 

Color. — Spotted or more than two-thirds white. 

Form. — Any radical deformity, ears very large or drooping over eyes, 

crooked or weak legs or broken-down feet. 
Condition. — Seriously impaired or diseased, excessive grossness, 

barrenness in animals over two years of age, chuffy or squabby fat. 
Size. — Not two-thirds standard weight. 
Pedigree.— Not eligible to record. 

Middle Yorkshire. — The Middle Yorkshire is a smaller and 
fatter type of animal than the Large Yorkshire, which is a 
strictly bacon breed. The color is white and the size ranks 
between the large and small types of the breed. This is not 
a recognized breed in the same sense as the Large or Small 
Yorkshire. In many instances it is the result of a cross 
between the Large and Small Yorkshire breeds, which class in 
the bacon and fat type respectively. Although bred in this 
way the Middle Yorkshire is more of a fat type of hog, thus 
more nearly meeting the American ideal in respect to form 
and finish than the Large or Small Yorkshire, the latter 
being too small when matured to be an economic producer. 
The Large Yorkshire is the only type of this breed of impor- 
tance in this country. Knowledge of Middle Yorkshire char- 
acteristics is therefore more important from an authoritative 
than from a practical standpoint. Middle Yorkshires are 
recognized as a breed in their original home. Compared 
with the Large Yorkshire, this breed is smaller, having 
greater fat-producing qualifications and more refinement 
in form and finish. 

Small Yorkshire. — The Small Yorkshire belongs to the fat 
type, although it is not important, as a breed, in this 
country. The size is small, ranking as one of the lightest 
breeds of swine produced. The weight ranges on the aver- 
age from 175 to 200 pounds at maturity. In a general 
way it is comparable in form to the Essex. The color is 
solid white the same as the large type of the breed. Black 
spots may occur on the skin. The form is rather square and 
compact, specimens of the breed being easily fattened at 
almost any stage of natural maturity. The head is short, 
the neck full and firm, the jowl compact, the body com- 
paratively short, although quite deep and symmetrical. 



VICTORIA 347 

The hindquarters are full, plump and extend well down to 
the hocks. The quality of the breed is very good, although 
the carcass contains too much fat and therefore is not in 
special market demand. Pigs from this breed are used 
often for roasting purposes. The chief objections to them 
are the small size, excessive amount of fat and rather slow 
maturing qualities. Information is of interest more from 
an authoritative than from a practical standpoint. 

Essex. — The Essex breed of swine has never become 
popular primarily because of its small size. It is reasonably 
early maturing and from this standpoint is acceptable, 
although it is not an economical producer of pork. It ranks 
among the smallest of the breeds. The breed color is solid 
black, without exception. The body is rather cylindrical 
in form, having reasonably good length and depth of body. 
The head is short and broad, the face slightly dished, the 
ears small and usually erect, the neck short and compact, 
the back slightly arched, the sides smooth and the quarters 
and thighs very well developed. The quality ranks well, 
the bone being of medium size and fine texture. The 
hair is usually fine, straight, smooth, and uniformly dis- 
tributed over the body. The shoulders are smooth and 
compact, the jowl trim, neat and closely carried. The breed 
is not adapted to productive swine husbandry, at least on a 
large scale. The chief objection is in the size and weight 
attained. This breed represents one of the extreme fat 
types of English production, the origin being in the county 
of Essex. 

Victoria. — The Victoria breed is of two types, one originat- ' 
ing in Indiana and the other in New York. The former is 
the result of crossing several of the leading breeds already 
discussed, principally the Poland-China, Berkshire, Chester 
White, and Suffolk. It belongs to the fat-hog type, although 
it is not popular or widely disseminated. The size of the 
Victoria ranges from 400 to 550 pounds at maturity. The 
breed is characterized by a solid white color. The body is 
broad, comparatively deep and long. The head is broad 
and the face moderately dished. The ears are medium in 
size and semierect, although they are inclined sometimes to 



348 JUDGING SWINE 

droop. The quality is very good, the hair being of medium 
length, straight and fine in quality. The body is compara- 
tively low set and compact. The shoulders are inclined to 
be thick and heavy at times, thus making the animal appear 
narrow over the loin and through the hindquarters. This 
breed has not been widely introduced into the swine produc- 
ing sections. It has been much more popular in the states 
where it originated. On the whole, the breed is not rela- 
tively important as it has no special qualifications over 
other breeds. The type originated in New York is likely 
extinct. 

Cheshire. — The Cheshire breed is not an important breed 
except under localized conditions. It ranks in the middle- 
weight class, the weight ranging from 400 to 600 pounds 
in well-matured specimens. This represents the extreme, 
however, as the average is considerably lower. The color is 
pure white, although black spots sometimes occur on the 
skin. The form is reasonably straight and smooth in out- 
line. The head and face are inclined to be long and the 
latter slightly dished. The ears are small and usually 
erect. The back is slightly arched and attains quite good 
width. The shoulders are smooth and compact, the sides 
straight and smooth, although somewhat lacking in depth. 
The quality is good, the bone being quite fine and the hair 
smooth, straight, and evenly distributed. The principal 
merit of the breed is its quality and refinement. Economic 
conditions have not fostered the development of this breed, 
owing to the better adaptation of other standard qualified 
breeds. The Cheshire originated in the northern part of 
New York where the climate is cold and not especially suited 
to swine growing. 

Standard of Excellence and Scale of Points for Cheshire 

Swine. 

Form. — Short to medium in length, short in proportion to length 
of body; face somewhat dished and wide between the eyes; ears 
small, erect, in old animals often slightly pointed forward; neck 
short; shoulders broad and full; hips broad, body long, broad 
and deep; hams broad, nearly straight with back, and running 
well down toward hock; legs long and slim, set well apart and 
supporting the body on the toes; tail small and slim; hair fine, 
medium in thickness and quantity; color white. When grown 
and well fattened should dress from 400 to 600 pounds. 



MULE-FOOT SWINE 349 

Scale of Points. 

Points. 

Head. — Short to medium in length, short in proportion to length 

of body 8 

Face. — Somewhat dished and wide between the eyes .... 8 

Jowl. — Medium in fulness 3 

Ears. — Small, fine, erect, and in old animals slightly pointing 

forward 5 

Neck.— Short and broad 3 

Shoulders. — Broad, full and deep 6 

Girth. — Around heart 8 

Back. — Long, broad and straight nearly to root of tail ... 10 

Side. — Deep and full, nearly straight on bottom line .... 7 
Flank. — Well back and low down, making flank girth nearly 

equal to heart girth .... 3 

Hams. — Broad and nearly straight With back, and running down 

well over toward hock 10 

Legs. — Small and slim, set well apart, supporting body well on 

toes 10 

Tail. — Small, slim and tapering 3 

Hatr. — Fine, medium in thickness and quantity 3 

Color. — White, and colored hairs to disqualify, color or spots in 

skin objectionable 2 

Skin. — Fine and pliable, small blue spots objectionable, but 

allowable 3 

Symmetry. — Animal well proportioned, handsome and stylish . 8 

Total '. . 100 

Mule-foot Swine. — The Mule-foot breed of swine derives 
its name from the peculiar structure of the foot which does 
not have the cleft or division in the hoof. The origin is not 
authoritatively known. The breed has been introduced in a 
few states, principally through the middle west, but has not 
gained a wide foothold. The breed is medium in size, solid 
black in color and only fair in refinement and maturing 
qualities. A few herds have been shown at various fairs 
throughout the country where they have attracted special 
attention from the standpoint of curiosity. One of the 
serious objections to the breed is its inability to with- 
stand heavy feeding. Moderate or excessive weight causes 
animals to break down in the pasterns or weaken otherwise 
in the feet which are small, narrow, and contracted. The 
breed has been advertised as being immune from cholera 
infestation, but practical tests have not indicated the relia- 
bility of these statements. The breed is not important at the 
present time. It is more interesting from an authoritative 
and breed-description standpoint than from practical utility. 



350 JUDGING SWINE 

Scale op Points for Mule-foot Swine. 

Points. 

Head and Face 4 

Eyes 2 

Ears 2 

Neck ■-. . 2 

Jowl 2 

Shoulder 6 

Chest 12 

Back and Loin . '. 15 

Sides and Ribs 8 

Belly and Flank 6 

Ham and Rump 10 

Feet and Legs 10 

Tail 1 

Coat 2 

Color 2 

Size • 5 

Action and Style 4 

Condition 4 

Disposition 3 

Total 100 



Bacon Type. — The former discussion on the hog has 
been especially significant of the fat or lard type of animal, 
which is so designated because of the large amount of fat 
stored in the finished animal and the ultimate use made of 
it. The bacon hog is so designated because of the specific 
products which are made from it. Practically the entire 
carcass of the bacon type of hog is converted into products 
which go on the market as cured bacon. The sides are 
ultimately cut into bacon strips. Because of the use made 
of the bacon hog, it is extremely important that animals 
purporting to represent this type attain a definite fixed form. 
Thin or half-fat hogs of the fat type will not make high- 
class bacon products. 

Origin and Uses.— The bacon hog is characterized by 
uniform interspersing of the fat and lean tissues, with a 
comparatively small amount placed on the outside of the 
body. A thin or medium-conditioned fat type of hog will 
not produce the desirable results. The bacon type is the 
result of breeding for this specific purpose and feeding such 
rations that the quality of the product will be most acceptable 
to the trade. In the lard hog bacon is a by-product of pork 



QUALITY 351 

and lard production. In the bacon hog the bacon products 
are of primary consideration, there being practically no 
by-products as in the fat or lard type. Bacon is obtained 
from the fat type of hog from the lower part of the side, 
between the shoulder and ham regions. This is one specific 
product obtained from the fat hog. The whole carcass of 
the bacon type is ultimately placed on the market as bacon- 
hog products which thus designates the specific purpose of 
the animal. 

Score Card for Bacon Hogs. 

Carcass Examination. 

Perfect score. 

General Appearance: 

Skin: thin, mellow, smooth 5 

Form: long, deep in proportion to thickness 10 

Quality: flesh, firm, even, streaked with fat and lean; back 

fat, thin; bone dense 20 

Kidney fat: white, firm 5 

Carcass: 

Head: fine, neat, longer than in lard hog ...... 2 

Neck: short, not heavy 3 

Shoulders: smooth, well covered 10 

Sides: long, deep, evenly fleshed, firm; loin heavy ... 25 

Hams: large, plump, firm; light covering of fat .... 20 

Total 100 

Weight. — The weight of the bacon type of hog averages 
less than that of the fat type. Animals weighing from 180 
to 190 pounds are in greatest demand for bacon-producing 
purposes. The bacon type represents a strictly finished 
product from the market standpoint. A smaller, unfinished 
lard type of hog should not be confused with it. Weight 
and form in the bacon hog are of special significance. Either 
over- or underweight with lack of proper smoothness, 
quality, and finish disqualify an animal for the most dis- 
criminating purposes. 

Quality. — Quality in the bacon hog corresponds very 
closely in its attainments to the most desirable acquisition 
of this characteristic in the fat animal. In bacon hogs 
there is a more pronounced individuality of the correlated 
parts, thus emphasizing the clear-cut form and features 
indicative of general quality. The head should be clear cut, 



352 



JUDGING SWINE 



smooth in outline, the jowl comparatively small and trim, 
the ears of medium size, the neck smooth and comparatively 
long, the shoulders smooth and compact, the sides long, 
smooth, and even, bone of medium size and dense, trim 
underline, and a fine, silky coat of hair. Other indications 
are signified by the general refinement in form and indi- 
viduality. 

Conformation. — Compared with the fat type of bog, the 
bacon animal is longer, narrower, and deeper in the body. 




Fig. 141. — The bacon type exhibited in a Large Yorkshire. 



The head is cleaner cut, the ears usually finer and more 
erect, the jowl smaller and smoother, the neck longer, the 
shoulders narrower and firmer, the sides longer, smoother, 
deeper, and more uniform, the quarters squarer, the thighs 
longer and thinner and the underline straighter, thus showing 
little waste. 

Taken as a whole, the animal is characterized by more 
quality, cleaner-cut features, more trimness of form, less 
waste, higher station and straighter feet and legs. The ribs 
are not as broadly sprung, but extend lower, thus giving 
the characteristic straight, even sides. 



CONDITION OR FINISH 353 

Smoothness. — Smoothness and trimness of form in the 
bacon hog are of pronounced importance. A rough, coarse, 
large-jointed animal with heavy bone or folds or wrinkles 
in the shoulders, sides or thighs will not make a desirable 
bacon product. Such animals have too much loss in carcass 
weight, and when placed on the market the sides do not 
present the delicate, palatable appearance required. Rough 
animals make rough, coarse sides of bacon and are otherwise 
undesirable in quality and edibility. 

Uniformity of Product. — Bacon hogs are produced under 
specific conditions where the proper kind of nitrogenous 
feeds are available. In Canada bacon hogs are produced 
largely to the exclusion of the fat type. Special breeds 
and feeds are utilized in the production of a uniform 
marketable product. The first acquisition of the producer 
of bacon should be a type of hog closely conforming to 
the accepted standard for bacon production. Unless the 
breeding is uniform this condition cannot be obtained in 
the finished product. Cross-bred animals of proper type 
may make an acceptable bacon product. However, indis- 
criminate breeding should not be resorted to in bacon 
production. Greater dissimilarity of type can be tolerated 
in the fat animal if the individuality and market condition 
are obtained. The bacon hog is a specific product bred under 
uniform conditions of breed, type, and feed requirements. 
Where these conditions prevail a most acceptable type of 
bacon hog can be produced. Uniformity of product can 
be obtained which will command a premium on the market. 

Condition or Finish. — Condition or finish in the bacon type 
of hog is significant of the same requirements as in the 
fat animal. The degree and character of condition attained, 
however, is widely different. The fat animal accumulates 
a large amount of fat, especially over the outside body region. 
The bacon hog intersperses the fat and lean in so-called 
streaks throughout the carcass. The high finish obtained 
in the fat hog is not desirable or even acceptable in the bacon 
animal. There should be only a sufficient amount of fat 
accumulated over the outside of the body to give the sides 
smoothness, firmness, and to retain the succulence and flavor 
23 



354 JUDGING SWINE 

of the product. From one to one and one-half inches of fat 
on the bacon hog is the accepted standard, while in the fat 
animal it may reach or exceed three or more inches. 

Market Value. — Ordinarily, the bacon hog, when placed 
on the average market, will not sell above the fat-hog market. 
This is largely because the markets in the near and surround- 
ing country do not generally demand this kind of a product. 
In sections where bacon production is specifically followed, 
as in Canada or Ireland, the bacon hog sells for a premium 
of fifty cents to one dollar per cwt. over the fat type of animal. 

Scoee Card for Bacon Hogs. 

Perfect score. 

General Appearance — 36 Points. 

Weight: 170 to 200 pounds, largely the result of thick cover 

of firm flesh 6 

Form: long, level, smooth, deep . 10 

Quality: hair fine; skin thin; bone fine; firm, even covering 

of flesh without any soft bunches of fat or wrinkles . 10 

Condition: deep, uniform covering of flesh, especially in 

regions of valuable cuts . 10 

Head and Neck — 6 Points. 

Snout: fine 

Eyes: full, mild, bright 

Face: slim 

Ears: trim, medium size 

Jowl: light, trim . . 

Neck: medium length, light 

FOREQUARTERS 10 Points. 

Shoulders: free from roughness, smooth, compact and same 

width as back and hindquarters 6 

Breast: moderately wide, full 2 

Legs: straight, short, strong, bone clean; pasterns upright; 

feet medium size 2 

Body — 34 Points. 

Chest: deep, full girth 4 

Back: medium and uniform in width, smooth 8 

Sides: long, smooth, level from beginning of shoulders to 

end of hindquarters. The side at all points should touch 

a straight edge running from fore- to hindquarter ... 10 

Ribs: deep 2 

Belly: trim, firm, thick without any flabbiness or shrinkage 

at flank . 10 

Hindquarters — 14 Points. 

Hips: smooth, wide; proportionate to rest of body ... 2 
Rump: long, even, straight, rounded toward tail . . . . 2 
Gammon: firm, rounded, tapering, fleshed deep and low 

toward hocks 8 

Legs: straight, short, strong; feet medium size; bone clean; 

pasterns upright 2 

Total 100 



LARGE YORKSHIRE 



355 



Bacon Breeds. — The bacon breeds from the American pro- 
duction standpoint consist of the Large Yorkshire and the 
Tamworth. The Hampshire has been classed both as a fat 
and a bacon hog. It is of considerable interest and utility, 
both from market and show-yard standpoint for both purposes. 

Large Yorkshire. — The Yorkshire breed of swine is of three 
distinct types, namely, the Large, Medium, and Small 
White. The Large type is the only one which has gained 
prominence in this country. The color is solid white, 
although bluish or black spots at times occur on the skin. 




Fig. 142. — Large Yorkshire sow. 



The body is long, comparatively deep and wide. The head 
is broad, the snout of medium length and slightly upturned. 
The ears are medium in size and should stand erect, although 
they are at times inclined to be pendant. The neck is of 
moderate length, the jowl reasonably trim, and the underline 
straight. The width of the back conforms to bacon re- 
quirements. The sides are long and full between the 
shoulders and hips. This breed ranks as one of the largest 
in size. Weights of 1000 pounds have been attained, although 
this is excessive. The Large Yorkshire is very popular in 
bacon production, although it is at times inclined to be 
somewhat coarse in quality and lacking in general refine- 



356 JUDGING SWINE 

ment. This breed is quite prevalent in bacon-producing 
countries, both in America and in its native home and 
surrounding countries. A weak loin and too much length of 
leg are objectionsin the breed. 



Standard of Excellence and Scale op Points fok Large 
Improved Yorkshire Swine. 

Points. 

General Outline. — Long and deep in proportion to width, but 
not massive; slightly arched in the back, symmetrical and 
smooth, with body firmly supported by well-placed legs of 

medium length ". 5 

Outline of Head. — Moderate in length and size, with lower 
jaw well sprung, and some dish toward snout, increasing with 

advancing maturity 4 

Forehead and Poll. — Wide . 1 

Jowl. — Medium, not carried too far back, toward neck, and not 

flabby 1 

Eye. — Medium size, clear and bright 1 

Snout. — Turning upward with a short curve, increasing with age 1 
Ear. — Medium in size, standing well out from head, nearly erect, 

but inclining slightly forward 1 

Neck. — Of medium length, fair width and depth, rising gradually 
from poll to withers, muscular, but not gross, evenly connect- 
ing head with body 3 

Outline of Body. — Long, deep, and of medium breadth, 
equally wide at shoulder, side and hams; top line slightly 

arched, underline straight 7 

Back. — Moderately broad, even in width from end to end; strong 

in loin, short ribs of good length 10 

Shoulder. — Large, but not massive; not open above .... 6 
Arm and Thigh. — Broad and of medium length and development 2 

Brisket. — Wide and on a level with underline 3 

Side. — Long, deep, straight and even from shoulder to hip . . 8 

Ribs. — Well arched and deep 5 

Heart Girth and Flank Girth . — Good and about equal . . 8 
Hindquarters. — Long to correspond with shoulder and side, 

deep with moderate and gradual droop to tail 5 

Ham. — Large, well let down on thigh and twist and rear outline 

somewhat rounded ..." 10 

Twist. — Well down and meaty 1 

Tail. — Medium, not much inclined to curl 1 

Legs. — Medium in length, strong, not coarse, but standing 

straight and firm 5 

Hair. — Abundant, long, of medium fineness without any bristles 4 
Skin. — Smooth and white, without scales, but dark spots in skin 

do not disqualify 2 

Color. — White on every part 1 

Movement. — Active, but not restless 5 

Total .100 



TAMWORTH 



357 



Tamworth. — The Tamworth, like the Large Yorkshire is 
one of the largest breeds. Excessive weights have been 
attained, although average male animals will weigh 
between 550 and 650 pounds. The color is solid red, the 
shades varying from light to dark, a medium color being 
preferred. Blackish spots on the skin are objectionable. 
This breed is long and deep compared with its width. There 
is considerable inclination toward upstanding qualities 
although this is significant to a certain extent with bacon 
breeds. The head and snout are rather long and pointed, 




Fig. 143. — Tamworth boar. 



the face narrow, and the jowl light and trim. The eyes are 
large and bright, the ears large and erect or semidrooping. 
The shoulders are usually smooth but of extreme width. The 
back is slightly arched, the sides long, smooth and deep and 
the quarters and thighs moderately developed. The quality 
is very good, the breed ranking well in bacon production. 
The chief objections to the Tamworth are its late maturing 
qualities, its lack of width and high-standing body. The 
breed has never become generally popular with American 
breeders owing to the extreme type as compared with the 
fat hog. The temperament of the Tamworth is active, 
the breed on the whole possessing good rustling qualities. 



358 JUDGING SWINE 

Long legs and prominent shoulders are other objections to 
the breed. 

Standard of Excellence tor Tamworth Swine. 

Color. — Golden red hair on a flesh-colored skin, free from black. 
Head. — Fairly long, snout moderately long and quite straight, face 

slightly dished, wide between ears. 
Ears. — Rather large, with fine fringe, carried rigid and inclined slightly 

forward. 
Neck. — Fairly long and muscular, especially in boar. 
Chest. — Wide and deep. 
Shoulders.— Fine, slanting, and well set. 
Legs. — Strong and shapely, with plenty of bone, and set well outside 

body. 
Pasterns. — Strong and sloping. 
Feet. — Strong, and of fair size. 
Back.- — Long and straight. 
Loin. — Strong and broad. 
Tail. — Set on high and well tasselled. 
Sides. — Long and deep. 

Ribs. — Well sprung and extending well up to flank. 
Belly. — Deep, with straight underline. 
Flank.- — Full and well let down. 

Quarters. — Long, wide, and straight from hip to tail. 
Hams. — Broad and full, well let down to hocks. 
Coat. — Abundant, long, straight, and fine. 
Action. — Firm and free. 
Objections: Black hair, very light or ginger hair, curly coat, coarse 

mane, black spots on skin, slouch or drooping ears, short or turned- 

up snout, heavy shoulders, wrinkled skin, inbent knees, hollowness at 

back of shoulders. 

Breeding and Class Characteristics. — Swine are judged 
from the breeding standpoint largely on the same basis as 
the fat specimens. There are a few points, however, of 
special significance well worthy of consideration. 

Breeding Requisites. — Breeding swine should be judged from 
the standpoint of the individual and the transmission of 
desirable breeding attributes to the offspring. Weight 
for age is important. Hogs are normally mature at least 
from the show-yard standpoint at two years of age. While 
extreme weight is important, if consistent with breed and 
utility qualifications it should not be obtained at the expense 
of weak bone, impaired constitution and vigor. In judging, 
therefore, evidences of such treatment should be taken into 
consideration. Conformity to breed type is important, not 



SEX CHARACTERISTICS 



359 



only in character but in general conformation, capacity and 
maturing qualities. The form should be long, wide, deep 
and otherwise uniform, thus exhibiting a capacious, repro- 
ductive system. Special attention should be paid to breed 
type, quality and bone formation. The feet and legs should 
be strong, straight, and the animal should stand well up 
on the toes. A low back, weak pasterns and small capacity 
are necessarily objectionable. All evidences of constitution 
and vitality which largely determine future usefulness should 
be apparent. 



Fie 




144. — A Chester White sow, showing the attributes of a good breeder. 
Femininity, smoothness, quality and refinement in evidence. 



Sex Characteristics. — The sex characteristics should be 
strongly developed, the boar masculine, vigorous, and 
alert. The head should be strong and broad, the eyes 
large and bright, the jaws square and broad and the chest 
wide and deep with lines conforming to the hindquarters. 
The head as a whole should exhibit masculine qualities. 
The neck should be of good length and blend smoothly with 
the shoulders which should be broad and otherwise strongly 
developed, although they should be smooth and possess 
refinement. The shields should be well developed, although 
not to the extent of causing coarseness of quality. 



360 JUDGING SWINE 

The sow should possess just the opposite extreme in sex 
development. Refinement should be in evidence through- 
out, although not to the extent of lowering constitution and 
vitality. The head should possess clear, pleasing lines. The 
neck should be straight, the shoulders more refined than in 
the boar, the body more capacious and the hindquarters 
fully developed from every angle. Width and depth of 
body are important. The chief indications of usefulness 
in the sow should first be conformity to breed type. Re- 
finement and general quality, constitution, capacity, strong 
feet and legs, and early maturing qualities should all be in 
evidence. She should have numerous well-developed teats. 

Feeders. — This class of hogs is not important from the 
open-market standpoint. Because of the prevalence of 
cholera and other communicable diseases hogs are not shipped 
to and from market as a usual thing for feeding purposes. 
Hogs of this class are usually purchased in the country and 
moved from farm to farm rather than from the open market 
to the farm. Like other animals, uniformity of breeding, 
a square, compact form, and quality are desirable. Hogs 
weighing from 75 to 150 pounds are used largely for feeding 
purposes, the age and weight selected depending upon feed 
and market conditions. Barrows constitute the best animals 
for feeding purposes. In judging, the same factors should 
be considered as in other types and classes, weight, form, 
quality, and indications of health and thriftiness being the 
main factors for consideration. 

Young Stock. — Young stock, whether in the pure-bred or 
grade form, should be judged on a basis of their probable 
outcome. Indications of thriftiness and desirable ultimate 
form and finish are the chief attributes to be considered. 
Weight for age is important. Quality and constitution 
should be apparent. Further evidences of good qualities 
are seen in the general refinement and symmetry of form, 
although this should not be gained at the expense of the 
other important utility requirements. 



CHAPTER XIII. 
JUDGING SHEEP. 

Purpose. — Sheep are maintained for two distinct purposes: 
mutton and wool production. In judging them these 
qualifications should be given close consideration. While 
both types are in a measure dual purpose in design, they are 
specifically bred for one or the other of these products. 
The mutton type, although specifically bred for mutton-pro- 
ducing purposes, is more strictly dual purpose, as the wool 
obtained from it constitutes a large proportion of the total 
supply of this product. Although the aim of breeders 
has been primarily toward perfecting mutton form, this type 
of sheep has given a good account of itself in wool products. 
The wool type is not as well balanced as the mutton 
type in the production of these two products. The quality 
of wool is unsurpassed, but the form of the animal has a 
low measure of value in mutton production. The mutton 
obtained from a wool sheep, therefore, is essentially a 
by-product. 

Method of Use. — The mutton carcass is consumed in a 
fresh condition with few exceptions. The principal market 
classes of the fat sheep are the lamb, yearling, wether, and 
ewe. While sheep are placed on the market in other forms, 
the same as cattle and swine, these classes mentioned consti- 
tute the standard finished market products. 

The wool obtained from the sheep either once or twice 
yearly is used in the manufacture of various kinds of woven 
or felted materials. This depends on the class and grade of 
the wool, as described later. In judging sheep a careful 
estimate should therefore be made concerning the value of 
this product in its various uses. 

Determination of Age. — Sheep have eight incisor teeth in 
the lower jaw. On the upper jaw a rough pad or cushion is 

(361) 



362 



JUDGING SHEEP 




>■ tr> CVj- 



DETERMINATION OF AGE 



363 



provided which serves the purpose of teeth in biting and 
masticating the feed. The age of sheep under one year is 
easily determined by the teeth, there being a full set of eight 
milk or temporary incisors after twenty-eight or thirty days. 
These temporary teeth are much smaller and whiter than 
the permanent set. This is clearly evident on the appearance 
of the first pair of permanent central incisors which are 
darker in color, larger, broader and longer. 

At one year to fifteen months of age the two permanent 
central incisors appear. These are much larger and stronger 
than the milk teeth. They can easily be detected by this 
difference. At eighteen to twenty-four months of age the 
first intermediate incisors appear and at two and one-half 
to three years the second intermediates appear. At four 
years of age, or thereabouts, the fourth or corner pair of 
incisors displace the temporary teeth, when the sheep has 
a full mouth, and the age must thereafter be determined 
by other signs. While it is not frequently necessary to 
determine the age of sheep after the four-year stage, it is 
sometimes desirable to do so. The only practical way 
which this can be done is by observing the general 
condition of the animal. As the age advances the loin 
becomes hollow, the nostrils wide and the mouth assumes 
a characteristic condition known as "broken mouth." 
When an animal reaches this stage it is beyond its practical 
period of usefulness except in cases of valuable animals which 
it is sometimes profitable to maintain by giving special 
attention to the preparation of the feed. 



EXPLANATION OF FIG. 145 



1— Mouth. 
2 — Nostrils. 
3— Eyes. 
4 — Forehead. 
5— Poll. 
6— Ears. 
7— Neck. 
8— Throat. 
9— Brisket or breast. 
10 — Shoulder junction. 



11 — Shoulder base. 
12— Legs. 
13 — Forenanks. 
14 — Heart girth. 
15 — Crops. 
16, 17 — Back and loin. 
17 — Loin. 
18 — Upper thigh. 
19 — Coupling. 
20— Sides. 



21— Belly. 

22— Sheath. 

23 — Scrotum or cod. 

24— Hindflanks. 

25— Thigh or leg of 

mutton. 
26— Twist. 
27— Tail or dock. 
28— Rump. 




3 



;■ 



% 




<3 •*' ■' ' J'".' 






m 



Fig. 146. — Mutton and lamb cuts. (Courtesy of Illinois Agricultural 
Experiment Station.) 
1, 2— Saddle. 1— Leg. 

3, 4, 5— Rack. 2— Loin. 

1, 2, 3 — Long saddle. 3 — Short rack. 

2, 3, 4, 5— Body. 2, 3— Back. 

4 — Breast. 
5— Chuck. 
4, 5— Stew. 



EXAMINATION OF FORM 



365 



Examination of Form. — The examination of a sheep when 
properly made requires a different method of procedure than 
when judging other animals. The usual method of examina- 
tion may be employed if the wool is removed. However, 
most sheep are judged when the wool is intact. This con- 
dition requires a careful sense of touch and vivid imagina- 
tion in order to picture the general form and character of the 
underlying structure. A sheep with a full coat of wool 




Fig. 147. — -Determining the development of the neck and over the shoulders. 



should always be examined cautiously, as the art of trimming 
is so perfected that an experienced shepherd can block out 
most any form desired. This is a common practice in the 
show ring and experienced judges are always on the alert 
for such a condition. While an animal need not be examined 
with the hands to determine beauty and general appearance, 
it is very essential to do so to determine the merits and 
imperfections of the underlying structural form. Each 
movement made by the person examining a sheep should 
reveal the true condition of form of the part under examina- 



366 



JUDGING SHEEP 



tion. Nothing should be passed over until a true visual 
picture is obtained of the sheep as it would appear with the 
wool removed. In order to accomplish this end most 
satisfactorily some systematic method of examination should 
be employed. 

Head and Neck. — The examination should begin at the 
head, first determining the age as previously indicated. 
The shape of the head, its length, width and wool covering 




Fig. 148. — Determining the fulness through the shoulders and chest. 



should be determined, and likewise the expression, size and 
brightness of the eyes and the set of. the ears. While very 
few breeds of domesticated sheep possess horns, it is well 
to determine whether there is any indication of them appear- 
ing. In pure polled breeds of sheep this is of special sig- 
nificance, as the appearance of horns, abortive or otherwise, 
would likely indicate impurity in breeding. After completing 
the examination of the head, the hands should be passed 
along the neck to determine the form and condition of 
this part. The blend of the neck into the shoulder should 



EXAMINATION OF FORM 



367 



likewise be determined by continuing the hands toward the 
shoulder, feeling the fulness of the shoulder vein during the 
process. 

Shoulders. — After completing this part of the shoulder 
examination the right hand should be placed on top of the 
shoulders to determine the width, smoothness, and firmness. 
The hands, one on each side of the animal, should then be 
passed down the line of the chest or girth which is back of the 




Fig. 149. — Determining the development through the lower chest region 
- and in the flanks. 



withers and shoulders, this constituting the junction of the 
forequarters and body proper. The spring and depth of rib, 
and fulness of chest and foreflank should thus be deter- 
mined. 

Body. — After determining the size and fulness of the 
heart girth, the right hand should be brought to the top of the 
shoulders, or slightly back of them, whence the left is passed 
to the floor of the chest to determine the depth of the animal 
in this part. The right hand should then be passed along 



368 



JUDGING SHEEP 




Fig. 150.— Determining the amount of covering, its distribution and firm- 
ness over the back and loin. 




Fig. 151. — Determining the width and thickness of the loin. 



EXAMINATION OF FORM 



369 



the back, pressing firmly with outstretched palm on the wool 
to determine the thickness, firmness, and uniformity of the 
flesh and condition in this part. After reaching the region 
of the loin insert the tips of the fingers of each hand in the 
barrel depression to determine the width of the loin. The 
spring of rib should be determined by passing the hands along 
the sides and on either side of the back-bone in such a way 
that the true form will be revealed. The depth of the body 



ITIJ^"*' "y*^**- — ''-^JS j&'M 


Hffi&s ...... ^3m 1*8* 


mm. i <i>' r ^*!^f W< i 


tB 


'■'■■■■imBfok ■■ f -;-•.-.. ' •■••' ,'-kT: \ • m> -ESt 






"**** * ™ 





Fig. 152. — Determining the development through the hindquarters. 

in the region of the hindflank should be determined by placing 
the right hand at the hook point and the left in the region 
of the flank. 

Hindquarters. — The fulness of the hindquarters should be 
determined by passing the hands one on either side toward the 
region of the tail-head. The left hand should then be placed 
at the region of the hook point and the right at the point 
of the buttock to determine the length of the hindquarters. 
The size of the leg of mutton is determined by grasping the 
leg with the left hand on a level with the flank and with the 
24 



370 



JUDGING SHEEP 



right at the rear, just below the extremity of the twist. 
The size and fulness of the leg of mutton should thus be 
determined by noting whether the hands meet in encircling 
the part or whether there is an appreciable lack of so doing. 
After this examination has been completed the student 
should be able to picture vividly in his mind an exact model 




Fig. 153. — Determining the development of the leg of mutton. 



of the animal examined. Each animal in the class should be 
examined in this way and after balancing the points of vital 
consideration an estimate should be made of the usefulness 
for the purpose in question, whether for breeding, show or 
market. 

Fleece. — In judging the fleece it should be opened at three 
distinct places. It should be examined over the shoulder 



MUTTON TYPE 371 

about midway of the body and on the outside of the thigh. 
The wool is finest in the shoulder region, coarsest in the thigh 
region and medium in the body region. The wooling of the 
face, legs, and belly should also be examined, as this is very 
important, especially in breeding classes. While not of 
such great importance in market animals, close and uniform 
wooling characteristics are desirable. Close, compact wool 
is indicative of good mutton qualities. In examining the 
fleece it should be parted at a natural opening by pressing 
the inner side of the hands on either side of the place to be 
opened. 1 This will avoid ruffling the wool, which is very 
much disliked by shepherds and experienced handlers of 
sheep. This examination for determining the quality of 
the fleece should be made at the same time that the animal 
is being examined to determine the characteristics of form. 
The length, uniformity, density, crimp, quality, and yolk 
constitute the main points for examination. 

Mutton Type. — The mutton type of sheep is analogous 
in form to the beef steer or the fat hog. The primary object 
of production is to produce an edible product. The nearer 
the form of a sheep approaches the established economic 
meat-producing type, the more valuable it becomes. The 
essential considerations, therefore, in mutton production are 
involved primarily in the same attributes as possessed by 
other meat-producing animals. 

Weight. — The weight varies, depending upon the breed, 
individuality and condition, the range in mature animals 
with approved breeding varying from 125 to 400 pounds 
gross. In market animals the weight is likewise dependent 
upon breeding, age, and condition. Weight for age is the 
standard of determining this attribute. The Southdown is 
the smallest of the mutton breeds, although it is very com- 
pact and especially desirable from the standpoint of mutton 
production. The long-wool breeds which are represented 
by the Lincolns, Leicesters, and Cotswolds, and the Oxfords 
from the medium-wool type represent the other extreme. 

Conformation. — Most of the domesticated breeds of sheep 
are of English and Scotch origin. Breeds from this source 

1 See Fig. 158, page 379. 



372 



JUDGING SHEEP 



constitute the principal mutton-producing animals. The 
form should be square, compact, and the animal low set. 
The body should be long, broad and deep. This should be 
largely the result of long, well-sprung ribs closely spaced, 
which gives width, depth, length, and compactness of form. 

The head should be broad and full, the neck short and 
compact, blending smoothly into the shoulder. The shoulder 




■■■-.■■ 



si 





Fig. 154. — An ideal type of Shropshire wether. 

should be broad and smooth over the top, and full and com- 
pact over the sides. In the region of the heart the form 
should be full and the chest deep. There should be no 
appreciable depression of form in the junction of the fore- 
quarters with the body proper. The crops and flank should 
be full and smooth. The back should be straight, carry out 
well to the tail-head, and it should be parallel with the under- 
line. The ribs should be well sprung, long and full, thus 



MUTTON TYPE 373 

giving width and depth to the body. The hindquarters 
should carry out square to the tail-head and buttocks. 
Any inclination to narrowness in this region is exceptionally 
objectionable. The leg of mutton constitutes the most 
valuable part of the carcass and development in this region 
should, therefore, be given special consideration. 

Quality. — Quality in sheep is important, the same as in 
other animals, although the method of determination is 
somewhat different from that used in horses, cattle and 
swine. A measurement of this condition cannot be made 
as largely by the eye and hand in sheep as in other animals. 
Quality is usually in evidence about the head, which should 
be clear in outline and free from any indication of coarseness. 
Large, drooping ears, a heavy muzzle and a coarse, open 
fleece are indicative of objectionable quality. The shoulders 
should be smooth, the joints clean in outline and the bone 
hard and refined in appearance. A fleece of fine quality, 
showing density, and fine hair on the face, ears and legs is 
also indicative of this attribute. The general demeanor 
should all indicate clean, trim features and outline of form 
devoid of waste. The skin should present a bright, pink, 
healthy appearance. A light, pale skin is indicative of 
general lack of health and thrift iness. 

Constitution. — Constitution is of special significance in 
breeding sheep. If the butcher could eliminate the parts of 
the sheep indicative of constitution it would be a desirable 
thing from his standpoint, as all of the readily salable por- 
tions are located in the loin and leg of mutton, while the 
head, neck, and forequarters, the parts which indicate con- 
stitution, are comparatively low-priced cuts. In actual 
practice the breeder and feeder have problems to contend 
with as well as the butcher. It is therefore necessary to 
have a broad, strong head, a large muzzle and nostrils, and 
a broad and deep chest, these being the chief indications of 
constitutional vigor. Like quality, every part of the animal 
should portray strong breeding and feeding attributes. 
These are dependent largely on form and constitution, the 
former indicating possession of qualities which will enable the 
sheep to use feed to good advantage, and the latter the con- 



374 JUDGING SHEEP 

tinuance of this process until the period of breeding or feed- 
ing is terminated. The general appearance of the animal is 
quite indicative of strength and vigor. A weakly constitu- 
tioned animal is portrayed by a small, pointed head and 
muzzle, small, sunken eyes, a narrow, shallow chest, and a 
dull, lifeless fleece. 

Capacity. — The attributes of capacity have been given 
consideration largely under the description of form or 
conformation. Length and depth of body are important, 
as sheep of this description develop rapidly during the 
normal growing period and thereby attain other important 
qualifications. Every part of the animal form should show 
capacity for breeding and feeding. The shallow body is 
very objectionable, as an animal with such conformation is 
usually cramped in the digestive capacity and therefore 
cannot use feed to advantage. Flat ribs, depressed crops, 
and a narrow loin are especially objectionable. Taken as a 
whole, the animal should show sufficient length, depth 
and symmetry of form to make, not only a strong vigorous 
breeder, but a producer of market animals conforming 
closely to the standard type desired. 

Condition.- — Condition is one of the first qualifications 
noticed by the buyer of animals fattened for market purposes. 
This is true because it is necessary to mingle muscle and fat 
to give a carcass a tender, juicy condition. The extent of 
fitting sheep for market, show or sale depends on conditions. 
They are usually fitted to the extreme for the show ring as 
custom has fixed this standard in bringing out all there is in 
an animal. Sheep should be highly fitted for the market, 
although fitting should never be overdone, as a soft, blubbery 
carcass is inferior in quality from the butcher's standpoint. 
An animal fitted to such a condition never appears to the 
best advantage in the show ring or on the market. 

An overconditioned animal can be determined by noting 
whether the fat has slipped. When in an overdone condition 
there is an accumulation of soft fat either in the foreflank, 
at the tail-head, on the ribs, or around the loin. A sheep in 
the best condition for the butcher is smooth, firm, and uniform 
in the fat covering. Any adverse condition is not only 



MUTTON TYPE 



375 



objectionable but unsatisfactory in securing the best market 
prices. Buyers often test the condition by grasping the 
animal with one hand over the region of the back, loin and 
ribs or at the dock. A full, firm, yet springy, even condition 
of these parts is indicative of proper finish. 

Maturity. — Sheep are mature when two years of age, 
considered from the standpoint of the breeder. In mutton 




Fig. 155. — A sheep in field condition. 



production, broadly speaking, the age may range from 
that of the early lamb to the yearling, or to normally 
mature animals sold or discarded from the breeding herd. In 
judging market animals, maturity from the purely market 
standpoint is all that need receive attention, other condi- 
tions being equal. In judging breeding animals, however, 
weight attainments for age are especially important. 

Deception from Trimming. — Deception from trimming is 
best illustrated by examining a sheep with the wool under 



37G 



JUDGING SHEEP 




Fig. 156. — A sheep trimmed for show, illustrating how form can be improved. 
(Photograph by author.) 





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Fig. 157. — A sheep with wool removed, showing natural contour. (Photo- 
graph by author.) 



FLEECE CHARACTERISTICS 377 

normal field conditions, with the sheep blocked out in a 
square, compact form, and the same sheep with the wool 
removed. This will bring out all of the possible points of 
deception. It will be noted that a very unsymmetrical 
sheep from the structural standpoint may be made to appear 
as having an ideal mutton form. Ordinarily the defects 
covered by blocking and trimming may be located on almost 
any part of the body exclusive of the legs or other portions 
where wool does not normally grow. 

Fleece Characteristics. 1 — The intrinsic value of an animal 
is determined by the sum total of all of its marketable 
products. The sheep, unlike most other animals, has an 
additional commodity in the wool, which not only serves as 
a protection to the animal, but which enters into commerce 
as an important product. The value of the wool, therefore, 
should be carefully determined in connection with the 
mutton-producing qualities. Although the fleece from an 
individual animal is not normally a large consideration, 
measured in dollars and cents, it is oftentimes, under certain 
conditions, sufficient to cover the annual cost of maintenance. 
While extreme wool and mutton-producing qualities are 
antagonistic, it is important to produce as good a quality of 
wool as consistent with the production of mutton of the 
best quality. 

There are three commonly accepted types of wool, measured 
in terms of breed production. These are namely: fine wools, 
medium wools, and long wools. In judging fleece character- 
istics it is necessary to take into consideration the type of 
sheep on which the wool is produced. The fine-wool breeds 
produce wool comparatively short and fine in quality. The 
crimp is close and the yolk excessive. The medium-wool 
breeds produce wool of average length and fineness. On 
the best individuals of these breeds the wool is unusually 
fine and uniform in distribution. The long-wool breeds 
produce a long and rather open fleece, lacking in crimp, 
and the excessive amount of yolk, as found in the fine-wool 
breeds. In order to judge these characteristics understand- 

1 Special reference, The Wool Grower and The Wool Trade, by F. R. 
Marshall and L. L. Heller, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 



378 JUDGING SHEEP 

ingly, it is necessary to have a clear idea of the kind of 
wool produced by the various types of sheep. Market 
considerations are also important, but if the three distinct 
types of wool are clearly understood and their qualities 
defined from the breed-production standpoint, the value of 
the fleece may be judged accurately from the viewpoint of 
the stockman. 

Method of Examination. — In judging fleece characteristics 
the best results are obtained by following some regular 
procedure in making the examination. The wool covering 
of the head should first be noted, after which it should be 
examined over the shoulder, mid-body, and outer thigh 
respectively. With the fingers extending straight and held 
close together, the wool should first be opened over the 
shoulder. This should be done by parting the wool at a 
natural opening to avoid ruffling or matting it. The finest 
wool grows in this region, and a determination of the quality 
in this part should not be taken as the standard. The wool 
should next be opened over the mid-body and outer thigh 
in the same manner. A balance of the fleece characteristics 
indicated in these parts will furnish an accurate guide to 
the wooling qualities throughout. 

Before deciding finally on the value of the fleece the 
sheep should be turned up on the buttocks and an examina- 
tion made of the wool covering over the belly and on the 
legs. The quantity, quality, length, density, purity, close- 
ness of crimp, yolk, and soundness should all receive close 
consideration in the general examination. In making a final 
summary of the value of a mutton sheep, the mutton and 
wool qualifications should both be taken into consideration. 
While the wool is a by-product in the mutton sheep its value 
should be coordinated with the mutton-producing qualifica- 
tions. In the fine-wool breeds the reverse condition is true, 
the wool being of chief consideration. 

Throughout the examination the fingers should be extended 
and held closely together to avoid ruffling the wool. The 
fingers should never be thrust in the folds of the wool as it 
usally leaves an impression which it is difficult to overcome, 
especially in sheep fitted for show. As in judging the form 



FLEECE CHARACTERISTICS 



379 



and condition of an animal the first examination should 
reveal the true condition and value of the fleece. 

Quality. — The quality of a fleece is determined by the fine- 
ness of the fiber, the closeness of the crimp, and the softness 
or pliability of the staple. 

The fineness has reference to the size of the fiber. This is 
very closely associated with the crimp, which should be 
close and uniform in contradistinction to the open-spiralled 
fleece of the long-wool breeds. A diseased or ill-fed sheep 
usually has a very objectionable fleece because of weakness 




Fig. 158. — Method of examining the character, quality and condition 
of the fleece. Wool should be parted at a natural opening. Fingers should 
be kept close together to avoid ruffling wool. 



of fiber and irregularity in the crimp. In a healthy, well- 
fed sheep the crimp is uniform, while otherwise it is long 
and wavy. An irregular growth is undesirable because of 
the lack of uniform fineness and strength of fiber. If a sheep 
remains in an unhealthy condition for any great length of 
time, the wool retains a weak place which usually reduces the 
value very materially. Wool with a perceptible weakness 
goes in a class for shorter stapled wools. 

In making an examination of the quality of a fleece, the 
fineness and closeness of crimp should be carefully deter- 
mined as well as the condition of the fiber. The softness 



380 JUDGING SHEEP 

or pliability is readily determined by pressing on the fleece 
with the palm of the hand, fingers extended. If there is a 
firm yet pliable condition the wool possesses the requisite of 
softness. If there is a dry, harsh touch, the wool is lacking 
in yolk or oil to give it the necessary pliability to retain a 
normal, healthy condition. When the secretion is ample, 
the scales on the fibers retain their close-fitting position, 
while if the secretion is not sufficient the scales stand out 
and give the harsh, grating touch characteristic of a dry, 
unhealthy or cotted fleece. A sheep which is well fed and 
otherwise properly managed usually exhibits it in the con- 
dition of the fleece as well as the body. 

Quantity.- — The quantity of the fleece is indicated by the 
length, density, and uniformity of staple. The length of 
staple varies, depending on the breed and the season of the 
year. The fleece should be judged with these three factors 
in mind. The long or coarse wools include those produced 
by the Lincoln, Leicester, and Cotswold. The medium 
wools include those from the Southdown, Shropshire, Hamp- 
shire, Oxford, Suffolk, Cheviot, and Dorset, and the fine or 
short wools those produced by the Rambouillet, American 
and Delaine Merino. Short-staple wools are used in the 
manufacture of woolens and felts, while long-staple wools 
are adapted to producing worsted goods made from strong, 
fine yarn. 

Density refers to the closeness or compactness of the 
fibers. If the fibers are not close it depreciates the value of 
the fleece greatly, not only on account of the amount of wool, 
but because of the depreciation in quality. An open fleece 
is also very objectionable because of the lack of protection 
afforded the sheep. An open fleece is often influential in 
causing an animal to become diseased through continuous 
exposure to storms and it is difficult to keep such a fleece 
free from foreign matter. 

Uniformity of covering influences greatly the wool clip. 
Sheep which are bare on the head, belly and legs are very 
undesirable, unless it is with breeds which are not naturally 
heavily wooled over these parts. Not only are these regions 
important but the uniformity of covering as well over the 
back, shoulders, sides, and thighs. An open, spiral condition 



FLEECE CHARACTERISTICS 381 

about the thighs or elsewhere is very objectionable, although 
it frequently occurs. 

Purity. — An examination of the fleece should reveal a clean, 
pure condition. The skin should be of a healthy pink color 
and from it the wool should grow evenly and without any 
indication of kemp or dead fibers. The original sheep was 
covered with a harsh, hair-like covering beneath which was. a 
soft-wool fiber. Domestication and improvement by man 
has eliminated the coarse outer covering and in its place a 
uniform covering of wool has been bred by proper selection. 
Inclination to revert to the original condition should be dis- 
covered, as dead, kempy wool is very objectionable because 
of its undesirable qualities in the manufacture of fabrics. 
Kemp will not absorb dyes and wherever these fibers appear 
in the cloth they reduce the value materially because of the 
discoloration and the harsh appearance in the product. 

Other than these dead fibers of wool, there should be 
freedom from foreign material of any kind. While allowance 
should be made for judging sheep in field condition, proper 
care will avert a large part of the dirt and filth often found 
in the fleeces upon examination. The introduction of any 
preparation to increase the oil or yolk content or to improve 
the texture or general appearance of the fleece is very 
objectionable. 

Lustre. — The lustre of a fleece refers to the character or 
glistening appearance of the fiber. Lustrous wools have a 
glistening or brilliant appearance. While this would seem 
to make wool harsh it does not cause such a condition. Dull 
wools are dead or lifeless in appearance and on handling 
there is a very decided harshness characteristic of dead or 
dry hair. When held to the light there is no tendency to 
glisten. Wools of this character are very much less valuable 
than those of a lofty, fresh lustrous appearance. 

Yolk. — Yolk is an oil secreted by oil glands. This exudes 
on the fibers of wool and out to the extreme outer surface 
where it collects and in some breeds forms a hard crust on 
the coat. This condition is especially characteristic of the 
fine-wool breeds / which have an unusual amount of this oil 
in the fleece. Sheep in healthy condition should show a 



382 



JUDGING SHEEP 




MARKET CLASSIFICATION OF WOOL 383 

uniform distribution of yolk throughout the fleece. This con- 
dition in sheep may be compared to the much-coveted oily 
condition of the skin and hair of the Guernsey cow. Only 
enough yolk should be exuded to keep the fleece in a soft, 
healthy condition. Any in excess of this amount is of no 
use whatever, as the manufacturer uses only the scoured 
wool. An uneven distribution of yolk indicates unthriftiness. 
Layers or flakes of yolk throughout the fleece show that the 
glands secreting this fluid are out of condition. This is an 
index to the regularity of the vital organs of the animal. 
When such a condition is present the feeding and manage- 
ment of the animal should be investigated, as invariably it 
is the result of improper care or a generally unhealthy con- 
dition. 

Soundness. — Sound wool is of great importance to the 
manufacturer because of the increased value given to the 
finished product. Unsound wools would of necessity make 
unsound cloth, because of the irregularity in the strength 
of the yarn, whether in woolen or worsted goods. There 
should be a uniform condition of strength and crimp through- 
out the fleece. 

A diseased condition of the animal may cause dead or weak 
places in the fleece. The location of the unsoundness depends 
on the stage of development of the fleece when the disease 
appears. The weakness may be in the top, the bottom or 
middle of the wool. This leads to the expression of wools 
with weak tops, weak bottoms or weak middles. In classi- 
fying wools, what would otherwise be a combing wool if 
sound would enter into the class for clothing wools because 
of the shortness of fiber made necessary through dividing 
the fiber at the location of the weakness. 

Market Classification of Wool. — Market wool is classified 
into clothing, delaine and combing staple. This classification 
is based on the length, strength and fineness of fiber, shrink- 
age or condition, color and character. Each of the domestic 
staples is divided into various commercial grades. 

Clothing Wool. — Clothing wool is used for making the 
highest grades of woolen cloth. It is a fine, short staple 
averaging about two inches in length. Clothing wools are 



384 JUDGING SHEEP 

graded on their quality into Picklock, XXX, XX, X, No. 1 
or one-half blood, No. 2 or three-eighths blood, and No. 3 
or quarter blood. Picklock and XXX are rare. 

Delaine Wool. — Delaine wool is about three inches in 
length, sound in staple and is used in manufacturing delaine 
cloth. The wool is further graded into fine, medium, and 
low. It is also classed under combing wools. 

Combing Wool. — Combing wool averages three or more 
inches in length. It should be strong enough to withstand the 
combing process. Such wool is graded into half-blood, three- 
eighths blood, quarter blood, low-quarter blood, and braid. 

Variation in Fleece. — Each fleece contains a number of 
distinct grades of wool; for instance, the finest wool of the 
fleece is found over the heart or along the shoulders, the 
next finest along the sides. The back of the fleece which has 
been most exposed to the rays of the sun and weather is 
usually dry and harsh. The neck, legs, and lower parts of 
the fleece yield shorter wool, while the lowest grade is found 
on the hindquarters. 

Before any of the wool is actually worked in the mills 
it is sorted according to the grade and thence used for the 
various purposes for which it is adapted. This emphasizes 
the necessity of having the fleece uniform in quality and 
condition throughout. While this is difficult to find in 
the average sheep, yet the nearer this condition can be 
approached the higher the wool will grade and the more 
valuable it will be on the market. Kemp and foreign matter 
damage the wool materially and for this reason care should 
be exercised in detecting the condition. 

Score Card for Mutton Sheep. 
General Appearance — 40 Points. Perfect score. 

Weight: score according to age 6 

Form: long, level, deep, broad, low set, stylish .... i(j 
Quality: clean bone, silky hair, fine skin, light in offal, yield- 
ing large percentage of meat ... • - . . . 10 
Condition: deep, even covering of firm flesh especially in 
region of valuable cuts. Points indicating condition or 
ripeness are thick dock, back thickly covered with flesh, 
thick neck, full purse, full, low flank, plump breast . 10 

Temperament: lymphatic, inclined to fatten 4 

Carried forward 4Q 



BREED CHARACTERISTICS 385 

Perfect score. 

Brought forward 40 

Head and Neck — 6 Points. 

Muzzle: fine, mouth large, lips thin, nostrils large 

Eyes: large, clear, placid 

Face: short, clean-cut features 

Forehead: broad, full 

Ears: fine, erect 

Neck: thick, short, throat free from folds 

FOREQTJARTERS 4 Points. 

Shoulder Vein: full 

Shoulder: covered with flesh, compact on top, smooth 

Brisket: projecting forward, breast wide 

Legs: straight, short, wide apart, strong; forearm full, shank 
smooth and fine 1 

Body— 26 Points. 

Chest: wide, deep, full, indicating constitution .... 6 
Back: broad, straight, long, wide, thickly fleshed, ribs arched 10 
Loin: thick, broad, long 10 

Hindquarters — 12 Points. 

Hips: far apart, level, smooth 2 

Rump: long, level, wide to tail-head 3 

ThigJis: full, deep, wide 3 

Twist: plump, deep 3 

Legs: straight, short, strong; shank smooth, fine .... 1 

Fleece — 12 Points. 

Kind: domestic, territory, carpet or blanket. 

Class: clothing, delaine or combing. 

Grade: fine, medium, or coarse. 

Quantity: long, dense, even distribution ...... 4 

Quality: fine, pure; crimp close, regular, even 4 

Condition: bright, sound, clean, soft, light 4 

Total 100 



Breed Characteristics. — Sheep are classified by types and 
breeds as follows, the classification being based on mutton- 
and wool-producing qualifications: 

Mutton. — Long wool: Lincoln, Leicester and Cotswold. 
Medium wool: Shropshire, Southdown, Hampshire, Oxford, 
Cheviot, Dorset, Romney, Suffolk, and Tunis. 

Wool. — Fine wool: American Merino, Delaine Merino, 
and Rambouillet. 

They are further described in detail as follows on a basis 
of type and breed characteristics: 

Lincoln. — The Lincoln breed of sheep originated in 
Lincolnshire, England. It is among the largest breeds 
produced. The weight of the rams varies from 250 to 300 
25 



386 



JUDGING SHEEP 



pounds, the ewes ranging somewhat lighter in weight. The 
color is pure white, the wool extending up to the poll and 
throttle with a characteristic tuft on the forehead. The 
wool extends down to the knees and hocks. The head 
and legs are covered with white hair. The fleece is long, 
moderately fine, considering type, and hangs in spirals or locks. 
In general appearance the breed is massive, some specimens 

















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Fig. 160. — Lincoln ram. 



reaching a weight of 400 pounds. The back is broad, 
level and the flesh reasonably firm. The breed is polled, 
broad between the eyes and inclined to be Roman-nosed. 
It does not rank high as a mutton producer, as the quality 
of mutton is not extra and there is an excessive amount 
of waste in the dressed carcass. The disposition is docile, 
although the breed is not the best suited to general pro- 
duction. The fleece attains an extraordinary length. It 
should not be less than eight inches in length for one year's 



BREED CHARACTERISTICS 387 

growth. In quality it is somewhat better than that of the 
Leicester. The breed ranks fair in breeding qualities. 
For average conditions it is too large and does not possess 
enough quality either in the mutton or wool. 



Standard of Excellence and Scale of Points for Lincoln 

Sheep. 

Points. 

Constitution. — Body deep, back wide and straight; wide and 
full in the thigh; bright, large eyes; skin soft and of a pink color 25 

Size. — Matured rams not less than 250 pounds when in good 
condition. Matured ewes not less than 200 pounds. ... 10 

Appearance. — Good carriage and symmetry of form .... 10 

Body. — Well proportioned, good bone and length; broad hind- 
quarters; legs standing well apart; breast wide and deep . . 15 

Head. — Should be covered with wool to the ears; tuft on forehead; 
eyes expressive; ears fair length; dotted or mottled in color . 10 

Neck. — Medium length; good muscle; well set on body ... 5 

Legs. — Broad and set well apart; good shape; color white, but 
some black spots do not disqualify; wooled to the knees . . 10 

Fleece. — Of even length and quality over body; not less than 
eight inches long for one year's growth 10 

Quality of Wool. — Rather fine, long wool; strong, lustrous 
fiber; no tendency to cot 5 

Total 100 

Leicester. — The Leicester ranks as one of the large breeds, 
although it is the smallest one belonging to the long-wool 
type. The rams average in weight from 200 to 250 pounds, 
the ewes ranging 50 to 75 pounds lighter. The form is 
square, although inclined to be somewhat upstanding. There 
are two types of the breed, the Bakewell and Border Leicester, 
however, the standard of excellence makes no distinction in 
them. The Bakewell type is white in color, large, long 
wooled, and is somewhat long in the leg. The head of the 
English Leicester has a tuft of wool and the face has a 
bluish tint, small black spots often appearing on the head 
and ears. The ears are erect, thin, and well poised. The 
neck is short, the body wide in the rib, although the 
quarters are inclined to be rounded and narrow. The 
breast is prominent, thus giving an unusually square appear- 
ance. The breed is polled and somewhat inclined to be 
Roman-nosed. The quality of the fleece is good for a long- 



JUDGING SHEEP 



wooled breed. It is medium in length and hangs in spiral 
locks over the body. The fleece does not extend beyond 
the ears usually or below the knees or hocks. The two 
types of Leicesters are distinguished by the white face and 
freedom from wool thereon in the Border Leicester, and the 
bluish- white face and tuft of wool on the head of the English 
Leicester. The breed is unusually refined and possesses a 
docile disposition. It is more popular in Canada than in 
the United States. 




Fig. 161. — Leicester ram. 



Standard of Excellence and Scale of Points for Leicester 

Sheep. 

Points. 

Head. — Long, moderately small, tapering toward the muzzle; 

white and well covered with hair; lips and nostrils black . 6 

Nose. — Somewhat narrow, almost straight in ewes, and slightly 

Roman in rams 2 

Face. — Having a wedge-shaped appearance, well covered with 

fine white hairs 2 

Carried forward 10 



BREED CHARACTERISTICS 389 

Points. 

Brought forward 10 

Ears. — Thin, rather long, mobile and directed backward; a black 

speck on face and ears not uncommon 2 

Eyes. — Large and prominent 4 

Neck. — Strong and moderately short, level with the back and 

broad at the base where it leaves the chest, gradually tapering 

toward the head, being fine where head and neck join; neck 

straight from chest, showing a straight line from rump to poll 6 

Breast. — Deep, broad and full 8 

Shoulders. — Upright, wide across the top, giving good thickness 

through the heart G 

Chest. — Well filled behind the shoulder, with large girth . 6 

Ba'ck. — Broad and well fleshed, ribs well sprung, loins wide, hips 

level, quarters straight and long 12 

Barrel. — Round, well-ribbed home, straight lines above and 

below . 10 

Legs. — Of moderate length, fairly large and wide apart, with 

strong, flat bone, covered with white hair; bi'own hair or spots 

objectionable 6 

Flesh. — Firm, springy pelt; pink skin . . 8 

Fleece. — Fine, uniform and sound in staple, curly, with good, 

bright lustre and no dark hairs or kemp, belly well covered 10 

Carcass. — Rectangular, legs well set on, hocks straight, pasterns 

good, with neat feet, good general appearance . . . . . 12 

Total . 100 

Cotswold. — The Cotswold breed, a native of the Cotswold 
Hills, England, is of remote lineage. The breed ranks with 
the Lincoln in size, rams weighing from 250 to 275 pounds or 
more in moderate flesh. This is an average mutton breed, 
the quality being somewhat inferior and the percentage of 
fat and offal too great. The breed is hornless, and the face 
usually white, although sometimes spotted with gray or brown. 
The head is broad between the muzzle and eyes, while the 
nose is somewhat Roman. The breed is alert, having con- 
siderable expression, and often a dignified appearance. The 
back is broad, although the body is at times shallow, making 
the animal appear leggy. The legs have the same color 
markings as the head. The breed ranks only fair in mutton 
quality, considering type, the coarse texture of mutton and 
external fat being criticisms against the breed. The fleece is 
similar to the Lincoln, hanging in locks or ringlets over the 
body. The breed is characterized by a heavy forelock of 
wool which hangs over the face and eyes. The fleece often 



390 



JUDGING SHEEP 



has extreme length, attaining a length of ten inches or more. 
Although considerable improvement has been effected in the 
weight, symmetry, maturing qualities, and fleece charactistics 
the demand for a smaller, earlier maturing breed of mutton 
sheep has mitigated against the general introduction of the 
Cotswold. 




Fig. 162. — Cotswold ewe. 



Standard of Excellence and Scale of Points for Cotswold 

Ram. 

Points 

Head. — Not too fine, moderately small, and broad between the 
eyes and nostrils, but without a short, thick appearance, and 
in young animals well covered on crown with long, lustrous wool S 
Face. — Either white or slightly mixed with gray, or white dappled 

with brown 4 

Nostrils. — Wide and expanded, nose dark 1 

Eyes. — Prominent, but mild looking 2 

Ears. — Broad, long, moderately thin, and covered with short 
hair 4 

Carried forward . 19 



BREED CHARACTERISTICS 391 

Points. 

Brought forward 19 

Collar. — Full from breast and shoulders, tapering gradually all 
the way to where the neck and head join. The neck should be 
short, thick and strong, indicating constitutional vigor, and free 

from coarse and loose skin 6 

Shoulders. — Broad and full, and at the same time join so gradu- 
ally to the collar forward and chine backward as not to leave 

the least hollow in either place 8 

Forelegs. — The mutton on the arm or forethigh should come 
quite to the knee. Leg upright with heavy bone, being clear 
from superfluous skin, with wool to fetlock, and may be mixed 

with gray 4 

Breast. — Broad and well forward, keeping the legs apart, girth 

or chest, full and deep 10 

Foreflank. — Quite full, not showing hollow behind the shoulder 5 
Back and Loin. — Broad, flat and straight, from which the ribs 

must spring with a fine, circular arch 12 

Belly. — Straight on underline 3 

Quarters. — Long and full, with mutton quite down to the hock 8 

Hock.— Should stand neither in or out 2 

Twist. — Or junction inside the thighs, deep, wide and full, which, 

with a broad breast, will keep the legs open and upright . 5 

Fleece. — The whole body should be covered with long, lustrous 
wool .• . 18 

Total 100 



Medium Wool. — Shropshire. — The Shropshire is one of the 
most widely distributed breeds of sheep in existence. While 
there is some variation in type, the breed possesses certain 
well-defined characteristics. The quality of the Shropshire 
is excellent, and when matured for market the lambs and 
mature sheep make a good quality of lamb and mutton. 
The quality is exhibited very strikingly in the general 
trimness of the animal. The bone is medium in size and 
possesses good quality. 

The size of the rams ranges from 175 to 225 pounds, and 
the ewes from 125 to 175 pounds. The breed possesses good 
constitution and exhibits considerable hardiness, although 
there are other breeds which surpass it. The most striking 
characteristics are the head which is broad, deep and almost 
completely covered with wool. The eyes and the extremity 
of the muzzle are the only parts which are not covered 
with wool, although in some cases it is so dense that the eye- 
sight is almost completely obstructed. The fleece is medium 



392 



JUDGING SHEEP 



in length, compact, and should extend from the muzzle ex- 
tremity well down to the hoofs on characteristic animals 
of the breed. The muzzle is usually dark brown or black 
and also that part of the legs which may not be covered 
with wool. The Shropshire possesses most striking breed 
characteristics. The breed is hornless, the ears small, short, 
and should be covered with short, fine wool. Large ears are 




Fig. 163. — Shropshire ram. 



objectionable. The Shropshire is a strong-backed breed, 
and usually has good depth of body. The brisket is usually 
full and square. The fleece covers the entire body uniformly 
and exhibits unusual quality. The breed is early maturing, 
the lambs growing and fattening uniformly at an early age. 
The mutton and wool combination, size, quality, and 
maturity are popular with the numerous advocates of the 
breed. 



BREED CHARACTERISTICS 393 



Standard of Excellence and Scale of Points for Shrop- 
shire Sheep. 

Points. 

General Appearance. — Attractive, indicating breeding and 
quality, with stylish carriage, and a symmetrical form covered 
with a dense fleece ' . 25 

Constitution. — Robust, as indicated by width and depth of chest, 
strength and formation of neck, and by bold, active movement ID 

Size. — In breeding condition when fully matured, rams should 
weigh not less than 180 to 225 pounds, and ewes not less than 
125 to 170 pounds 10 

Fleece and Skin. — Fleece of good length, dense, elastic to 
touch, medium fine, free from black fibre, slightly crimped, 
with evenness of texture throughout; scrotum of rams well 
covered with wool. Skin light cherry color, free from dark 
spots 15 

Body. — Well proportioned, with shoulders well placed, fitting 
smoothly upon the chest, which should be deep and wide, broad 
and straight back, thick loins well covered with firm flesh; 
hindquarters well finished; twist deep and full 20 

Head and Neck. — Head short, broad between the ears and eyes, 
bold and masculine in rams, without horns, well covered with 
wool, ears short and erect, eyes bright, color of face and ears 
dark brown. Neck of medium length, strong and muscular 
(especially in rams), symmetrically joined to head and shoul- 
ders. Rams with horns or stubs are disqualified as heads of 
flocks 15 

Legs. — Well set apart, broad, short, straight, color dark brown, 
and well wool ed; pastern strong and upright 5 

Total 100 

Hampshire. — The Hampshire breed ranks rather large 
in size and like the Shropshire, has certain very marked 
breed characteristics. The face is dark brown in color, 
broad, long, and the nose very strikingly Roman in appear- 
ance. The legs are also dark brown or black in appearance. 
The fleece is medium in length, reasonably dense, but not as 
good in quality as in the Shropshire or Southdown, lacking 
in length, density, fineness and an even distribution. 

In general appearance, the Hampshire is a large, long, 
broad, and deep animal. It is second to the Oxford in size. 
The legs are of medium length, thus giving the animal a 
fairly low-set appearance. There is some inclination to 
narrowness and shallowness in the heart girth. The weight 
of the rams ranges from 200 to 250 pounds and the ewes 



394 



JUDGING SHEEP 



from 175 to 200 pounds in sheep of standard weight. The 
quality is fair, there being some inclination to coarseness. 
The breed is hornless, and ranks well for crossing on other 
breeds for the production of mutton. One of the principal 
points in favor of the breed is the large size to which it 
attains early in life, thus giving size and maturity to the 
lambs at a much younger age than otherwise. Taken as a 




Fig. 164. — Hampshire ram. 

whole, the Hampshire is not as compact or as good in quality 
either in mutton or fleece as the Shropshire or Southdown. 
However it ranks well as a mutton sheep, having a reasonably 
wide distribution in England, America and other countries. 



Standard op Excellence and Scale of Points for Hamp- 
shire Sheep. 
Detailed Description. 
Head and Legs: 

Head: moderately large, but not coarse; well covered with 
wool on forehead and cheeks. 



BREED CHARACTERISTICS 395 

Nostrils: wide. 

Color: (head and legs) dark brown or black 

Eyes: prominent and lustrous. 

Ears: moderately long and thin, and dark brown or black 

color. 
Legs: well under outside of body, straight, with good size 

of bone, black. 

Neck, Shoulders and Chest: 

Neck: A regular taper from shoulders to head, without any 
hollow in front of shoulders, set high up on body. 
. Shoulders: sloping, full, and not higher than the line of back 
and neck. 
Chest: deep and full in the heart place, with breast prominent 
and full. 

Body: 

Back: straight, with full spring of rib. 

Loin: wide and straight, without depression in front of hips. 

Quarters: long from hips to rump, without sloping, and deep 

in thigh. Broad in hips and rump, with full hams. Inside 

of thigh full. 

Scale of Points: 

Points. 

Head: size and shape, 5; ears and eyes, 3; color, 5; legs and 

feet, 2 15 

Neck: shoulders and breast — neck, 5; shoulders, 10; chest 

and breast, 15 30 

Body: back and loins, 15; rib, 5 . 20 

Quarters: length, 10; width, 10; twist, 5 25 

Wool: forehead and cheeks, 2; belly, well covered, 3; quality, 5 10 

Total 100 



Southdown. — The Southdown is the smallest of the 
middle wool breeds of sheep. The weight of rams ranges 
from 150 to 175 pounds and ewes from 130 to 140 pounds. 
From the standpoint of form and quality, the breed is 
almost ideal. The animal is straight in its lines, squarely 
built, and compact throughout. The latter attribute is 
one of the most desirable qualities of the breed. The bone 
is fine, the fat not excessive and the flesh of the finest flavor. 
The color of the face and legs is of a rich grayish brown. The 
fleece extends over the poll and forehead, up to the eyes and 
to the extremity of the lower jaws. On the legs it extends 
well below the knees and hocks. The fleece is of medium 
length, fine in quality, very dense and has a close crimp for 



396 



JUDGING SHEEP 



a medium wool breed. The fleece is short, however, and 
lacking in yolk. 

The breed is hornless, the head broad, the ears rather small 
and neatly set, the eyes bright, the muzzle large and the 
nostrils open. The neck is short and compact, the shoulders 
smooth, and the crops full. The body of the animal is very 
nearly ideal from the mutton standpoint, it having the 
desired length, width, squareness and fulness of body, back 



"»*■'■ 






Fig. 165. — Southdown ram. 



and loin. The leg of mutton is well developed, having 
quality and compactness. The constitution is quite well 
developed as indicated by the rather large muzzle and 
nostril and the broad, deep chest. The legs are of medium 
length, the bone of medium size and fine quality. The con- 
formation of the Southdown meets the demands of the 
butcher in compactness and quality. The breed lacks size, 
however, and may be criticised somewhat from this stand- 
point, as well as having a light fleece. 



BREED CHARACTERISTICS 397 

Standard of Excellence and Scale of Points' for South- 
down Sheep. 

Points. 

Head. — Medium in size and hornless, fine, carried well up, the 

forehead or face well covered with wool, especially between the 

ears and on the cheeks, and in the ewe slightly dished ... 5 

Lips and Under Jaw. — Fine and thin 1 

Ears. — Rather small, tolerably wide apart, covered with fine 

hair, and carried with a lively back-and-forth movement . . 2 

Eyes. — Full and bright 3 

Face. — A uniform tint of brown, or gray, or mouse color . 3 

Neck. — Short, fine at the head, but nicely tapering, and broad 

and straight on top at the shoulders . 4 

Shoulders. — Broad and full, smoothly joining the neck with the 

back 5 

Breast. — Wide, deep and projecting well forward, the forelegs 

standing wide apart 5 

Back. — Back and loin broad and straight from shoulders to rump 7 
Ribs. — Well arched, extending far backward, the last projecting 

more than the others . 6 

Rump. — Broad, square and full, with tail well set up ... . 6 

Hips. — Wide, with little space between them and last ribs . . 6 

Thighs. — Full and well let down in twist, the legs standing well 

apart 6 

Limbs. — Short and fine in bone, and in color to agree with the 

face 3 

Forelegs. — Well wooled and carrying mutton to the knees, but 

free from meat below 2 

Hindlegs. — Well filled with mutton and wooled to the hocks, 

neat and clean below 2 

Belly. — Straight and covered with wool, the flank extending so 

as to form a line parallel with the back or top line .... 5 

Fleece. — Compact, the whole body well covered with moderately 

long and close wool, white in color, carrying some yolk ... 12 
Form. — Throughout smooth and symmetrical, with no coarseness 

in any part 9 

General Appearance. — Spirited and attractive, with a deter- 
mined look, a proud and firm step, indicating constitutional 

vigor and thorough breeding 8 

Total 100 

Oxford. — The Oxford, which is a derivative of a Hamp- 
shire-Cotswold cross, is the largest of the medium wool 
breeds of sheep. In some respects it resembles the Shrop- 
shire and Hampshire breeds, although it is larger in size. 
The breed is somewhat variable in this respect, standard 
rams of the breed weighing from 250 to 350 pounds and 
ewes from 180 to 275. The constitution of the Oxford is 
well developed, as indicated by the broad, deep chest which 



398 



JUDGING SHEEP 



extends well forward, thus giving a large chest capacity. The 
frame is large, which provides for the extraordinary size to 
which the breed develops. The animal is long in body, deep, 
broad, and square over the back. 

The head is large and somewhat inclined to be plain, 
although not to a serious extent. The forehead is broad, 
the jaws deep and the muzzle large and characterized by 







Fig. 166. — Oxford ram. 



open nostrils. The neck is full, broad, and compact, the 
shoulders smoothly developed and the chest girth square and 
full. The leg of mutton is large, although it does not possess 
the quality of some of the smaller breeds. The fleece covers 
the entire animal, with the exception of the face, cheeks, 
muzzle extremity, and frequently the legs from the knees 
and hocks down. The face and legs are uniformly brown 
in color. The fleece of this breed is rather coarse and open. 
It is ordinarily classed as the longest and coarsest fleece 



BREED CHARACTERISTICS 399 

grown by the Down breeds. The skin of the Oxford is not 
as desirable as it should be, there being some tendency to 
a bluish tinge which is an objectionable feature in any breed. 
The Oxford is prolific and meets with most favor on level 
or rolling lands. 

Standard of Excellence and Scale of Points for Oxford 
Down Sheep. 

Points. 

Breed Type — 30 Points. 

Form: Of a good general appearance, made by a well-balanced 
conformation, free from coarseness in any part, and show- 
ing good style both at rest and in motion 15 

Head: Of moderate length and width between the ears and 
between the eyes, and well covered with wool over poll and 
down to the eyes. Color of face an even dark gray or brown, 
either with or without gray spot on tip of nose . . 6 

Rams: When fully matured and in good condition rams] 
should weigh 250 to 350 pounds. I r 

Eives: When fully matured and in good condition ewesf 
should weigh 180 to 275 pounds . J 

Ears: Medium size, not too thick and of an even brown or 
dark gray color 2 

Legs: Short, strong in bone, flat and of even dark gray or 
brown color, placed squarely under the body and well apart 2 
Constitution — 25 Points. 

Heart Girth: Large and wide and full in the chest ... 10 

Movement: Must be bold and vigorous 5 

Eyes: Bold, prominent and bright 4 

Skin: Bright pink in color 3 

Neck: Strong and muscular in rams and well set on in both 

sexes 3 

Mutton Form and Quality — 30 Points. 

Shoulders, Back, Loin, and Rump: Wide and straight on top 
from base of neck to tail 15 

Shoulders and Thighs: Full and well meated both inside and 
outside . 5 

Flanks: Well filled and strong so as to make the lower lines 
of the body as straight as possible, and side lines straight 
or rather full 4 

Carcass: Evenly covered with good, well-marbled meat . . 6 
Wool — 15 Points. 

Fleece: Of moderate length, close and of even quality, cover- 
ing the whole carcass, well and free from black patches 
upon the body, neck or head 15 

Total 100 

Cheviot. — The Cheviot is a very characteristic breed. Its 
stylish form and sprightly movements are noticeable by any 



11)1) 



.Hi I Hi INC SHEEP 



casual observer! The breed is medium in size, rams weigh- 
ing 200 pounds on the average, and ewes from I I*) to lf>o 
pound:;. The head is usually hornless and devoid of wool, 
the latter extending to the base of the ears and the throttle. 
The legs are bare of wool below the knees and hocks, the 
head and legs usually having a while color. The fleece is 
more than average in length, and is very uniformly dis- 
tributed over the I »o<ly. 1 1- is nol, as dense iis in other medium 
wool breeds, the openness of fleece being objectionable. 




Km. 107. ' Ihoviot ram and owo. 



The head of the Cheviot is rather broad, the muzzle large 
and the nose slightly Roman. The ears are free from wool, 
of medium size, rather pointed and slightly erect. The neck 
is short,, broad, and deep and has a rather characteristic crest 
formed partly by the conformation of the neck and shoulder 
and otherwise l>y the fleece. The body of the ( Iheviot is deep, 
the legs rather short, thus giving the animal a characteristic 
low-set appearance. The shoulders and body are not as 
broad as in the Shropshire and usually not as smooth and 
compact. The ribs extend well down, thus giving a charac- 



BREED CHARACTERISTICS 401 

t< n ii<: depth of body. Mutton from this breed ranks high, 
because of superior quality and minimum of waste fat, The 
constitution is '|uif,<: remarkably developed, as indicated by 
the depth of body and the forward i xtension of the brisl 1 1 
Tli<; breed, as a whole, i rarely surpassed in rustling quali 
ti' In ome cases the rams have horns, although this is 
rare. Characteristic animal i of thi i brei d have a very alert, 
ityli b, and distinctive appearance. Thi principal objections 
to them are lack of compactneg i and thin, light, open fleeces, 

. bd 01 Excellence and Scale 01 Ponrai fob Chevjoi 

. III. I.I' 

Geneual Co koumatxon abtd Quality Deep and full brei 
and large through chest. Back wide and vith well 

sprung, deep ribs, lege well placed and leg of mutton full and 
thick. Body (veil fleshed, skin pink with no blue or dark eoloi 
']< < '.•': compact ••)')'] medium fine, bone strong and fine, gi n 
eral appearance graceful, symmetrical, active 30 

Size Jn p"j'>'J flesh when fully matured a twenty four month* 
old ram should weigh not less than 225 pound**, and a ewe not 
]< . . than 150 pounds 10 

Head Should 0<: medium short and broad with ample breadth 
between the eyes Bars should be of medium length :>;j<j 
lally erect when at repose. Head covered with clear white 
bains, extending from no o . • of poll. Ridge of head 

from between eye* to no ight oi slightly arched with 

females and mo gly arched or Roman with rams Color 

of tip oi nose black J.v 

Body. Well proportioned, having notable depth, with thiektu 
on top and at flanl to • ooukj b< •'.•;/ broad and thi< 
shoulders should set well back and be smoothly covered, and 
crops be full and well arched. The rump should 0<: long, broad 
and level 20 

Should b veil set apart and be covered with dean 

white hair, with no wool below bocks and knees, 'l I/'; Imj'J 
ild be flat and deep below hocl hould 0<; 

ong and not show weakness, supporting the body well JO 

J- >.).•). Symmetrical, i placed when in repo* and booi 

black in color . f, 

Fleece, Should ';'/•/<:; the body completely to behind the poll 
and ears and down to knees and bocks, Under part oi the bod 
ild be well covered. In mature animals should be i oi - 
than three inches loi • vth and be compact and 

of medium wool class. Rams should shear at least J 2 pound 

hen in mal blerepresex 

of the breed 20 

Total J00 

20 



402 



JUDGING SHEEP 



Objections. — Scurs on the head, black spots on the head, flesh- 
colored or spotted skin about the nostrils, hair about the thighs 
or kemp on the body, reddish or sandy hair on head or legs, lack 
of wool on under part of body. 

Disqualifications. — All male lambs shall be ineligible to registra- 
tion if having scurs or horns exceeding one inch in length. 

Dorset Horn. — The Dorset Horn breed, as the name 
implies, is one of the few domesticated breeds of sheep 
which possesses horns. In the rams the horns have a very 





Fig. 168. — Dorset Horn ram. 



characteristic spiral form. They are large at the base, 
extend slightly outward from the head, then backward 
and curve forward. The face and legs of the breed are white. 
The fleece extends to the base of the lower jaw and the under 
side of it, extending in a circle around the eyes and over the 
poll and forehead. The fleece is medium in length and fine- 
ness. It extends to the knees and hocks, the remaining por- 
tion of the legs being white. The fleece is usually too short, 



BREED CHARACTERISTICS 403 

and not well distributed. The underside of the body and 
legs is often scantily covered with wool. 

The size of the breed ranges from 200 to 225 pounds in the 
rams and from 150 to 175 in the ewes. The form of the 
Dorset Horn is somewhat inclined to be rangy, the ribs 
flat and the back low. The body has not as much scale 
and compactness as desirable for a typical mutton sheep. 
The Dorset Horn is an exceptionally good breeder, the ewes 
making excellent mothers, often breeding twice yearly. The 
quality of the lamb and mutton is above the average. The 
constitution is very well developed, although there is some 
tendency to shallowness of chest. Lack of mutton form 
and even distribution of fleece are criticisms of the breed. 



Standard of Excellence and Scale op Points for Dorset 

Sheep. 

Points. 
Head. — Neat, face white, nostrils large, well covered on crown 

and under jaw with wool 5 

Horns. — Small and gracefully curving forward, rather close to 

jaw . 5 

Eyes. — Prominent and bright 2 

Ears. — Medium size, covered with short white hair .... 2 
Neck. — Short, symmetrical, strongly set on shoulders, gradually 

tapering to junction of head 5 

Shoulders. — -Broad and full, joining neck forward and chine 

backward with no depression at either point (important) . . 15 
Brisket. — Wide and full, forward, chest full and deep ... 8 
Foreflank. — ■ Quite full, showing little depression behind 

shoulder 8 

Back and Loin. — Wide and straight, from which ribs should 

spring with a fine, circular arch 10 

Quarters. — Wide and full, with mutton extending down to 

hocks 10 

Belly. — Straight on under line „ . 3 

Fleece. — Medium grade, of even quality presenting a smooth 

surface and extending over belly and well down on legs . . 12 
General Conformation. — Of the mutton type, body moderately 

long; short, stout legs, placed squarely under body, skin pink, 

appearance attractive 15 

Total 100 

Romney. — The Romney breed is a native of Kent county, 
England. The breed is comparatively new and untried in 
America. The head and legs are white, the wool extending 



404 



JUDGING SHEEP 



down to the knees and hocks and up to the extremity of the 
jaws, reaching over the poll and terminating in a tuft on 
the forehead. It is fair in mutton production, the back 
being broad and the body very compact in form. The early 
type of the breed was small, flat-ribbed and late in maturing 
qualities. The modern type is more refined and compact 
and has better fattening propensities. The back is broad, 
long and the quarters are well developed. The breed is 
hornless. It is claimed it is free from foot-rot, but this 




Fig. 169. — Romney ram. (Courtesy of Messrs. Hickman and Kent, Scruby, 

England.) 



may be somewhat exaggerated. The breed is adapted to 
low-lying lands, although it is not likely that it is entirely 
immune from this disease, peculiar to sheep when main- 
tained on low lands. The quality of the breed is fair in mut- 
ton and wool. There is some inclination to coarseness of bone 
and open fleece characteristics, an average fleece weighing 
about eight pounds. The breed has considerable merit and 
has met with favor in Australia and some of the British 



BREED CHARACTERISTICS 



405 



colonies. It is not important in this country, although it 
is well worthy of consideration both from a utility and 
authoritative standpoint. 

Suffolk. — The Suffolk breed is not widely distributed in 
this country. It resembles the Hampshire Down in many 
respects, the face and legs being either black or a very dark 
brown. The breed is polled, the wool extending from the 
back of the ears and the lower extremity of the jaws down 




Fig. 170.— Suffolk ram. 



to the knees and hocks. Specimens of the breed are about 
equal to the Hampshire in size, rams weighing from 200 
to 250 pounds, the ewes ranging about 50 pounds lighter. 
The Suffolk is a strongly constitutioned breed and it is said 
that they are immune from foot-rot. The ears are medium 
to large in size and are covered with a fine coat of soft 
hair. The head is rather broad, the neck moderately long, 
and the chest broad and full. On the whole, specimens of 



406 



JUDGING SHEEP 



the breed are inclined to be rangy. However, it has a 
well-sprung rib. The fleece is moderate in length, and reason- 
ably dense and fine in quality. The rather distinct black 
covering of the head and legs is a peculiarity of the breed. 
As a mutton breed it ranks well, possessing fat and lean-pro- 
ducing attributes which are especially favorable to lamb and 
mutton production. The constitution is well developed, as 




Fig. 171. — Tunis ram. 



indicated by the strong chest development. The breed is 
especially suited to low or rolling lands. 

Tunis. — The Tunis breed is not widely distributed in 
America. The origin is unknown; however, it has existed 
in Tunis for several centuries. The breed is polled generally 
and characterized by a brownish color about the face and 
legs, the head being bare of wool from the forehead down 
and likewise the legs below the knees and hocks. The fleece 
is quite fine in quality, fairly compact, and averages about 
three to four inches in length. The color varies consider- 



WOOL TYPE 407 

ably. In some specimens the color of the fleece is white, 
while in others there is a reddish cast, and in still others, 
reddish fibers intermixed with the white. 

The breed is rather small in size, the weight ranging from 
140 to 160 pounds in rams and from 125 to 130 pounds 
in the ewes. The form is inclined to be rangy, the type 
not being expecially well fixed in the breed. The head is 
rather long and inclined to be narrow, the ears large and 
the neck long and not compactly developed. The breed is 
fairly low set, although there is some tendency to extreme 
length of leg. The body possesses very good depth, however; 
it is inclined to be narrow and lacking in the spring of rib. 
One of the characteristic features of this breed is the broad 
tail, which often measures four to five inches in width. It 
is thick and moderately long, the fleshy part extending 
down six to eight inches at maturity. The principal objec- 
tions to the breed are its lack of size and uniformity in type. 
There is considerable opportunity for improvement in the 
breed, especially in these two respects. 

WOOL TYPE. 

Wool sheep are produced primarily for the fleece. In 
former years the variation in the mutton and wool type was 
greater than it is at present. Economic conditions have 
so changed that the breeders of strictly wool sheep are now 
giving more attention to the form or mutton-producing 
qualities. The fine-wool breeds were bred so carefully in 
wool-producing qualities that the weight of the fleece not 
only formed an unusually large proportion of the total 
weight, but the constitutional development was thereby 
injured. The increase in the price of beef and other meat- 
producing animals has had a beneficial effect on the produc- 
tion of more and better sheep. It is also significant that the 
fluctuation in the price of fine wool, due to several conditions, 
has caused the fine-wool breeders to place more stress on 
mutton-producing qualities. 

Conformation. — Compared with the mutton sheep, the 
wool type is smaller, longer in the leg, less symmetrical, 



408 



JUDGING SHEEP 



flatter in the ribs and not as heavily or uniformly covered with 
natural flesh. The type is wooled, however, practically from 
head to foot. The head is usually so densely covered with 
wool that the animal sees with difficulty. It is wooled to the 
extremity of the muzzle, over the belly, in the arm pits and 
down to the pasterns. Some of the breeds of this type are ex- 
cessively wrinkled, thus giving a maximum area on which 
wool may be grown. 




Fig. 172. — Wool type of sheep. 

The modern type of fine-wool sheep is more symmetrical, 
less angular and smoother in form than formerly. This has 
been brought about largely by the desire to obtain better 
mutton-producing qualities. Attention has been given to 
breeding out the folds and w T rinkles,thus materially improving 
the mutton form. Even with these improvements the wool 
sheep does not possess the thickness, smoothness and uni- 
formity of natural flesh of the mutton type. In judging 
this type of sheep mutton-producing qualities should be 
emphasized consistently with the wool-producing attributes, 
which are of primary consideration. 



WOOL TYPE 409 

Quality. — The wool type of sheep possesses an unusual 
degree of refinement. This is natural, however, considering 
the purpose of the animal. Naturally an animal producing 
a fine quality of wool would show correlated characteristics 
in other respects. While smaller, more angular, and less 
symmetrical than the mutton type, these animals possess 
unusual quality. The head is clear cut, the bone fine, the 
skin soft and pink, and the hair of fine quality where it 
appears on the animal. 

A close examination of the fleece on a fine- wool sheep 
will indicate the possession of these attributes. The close- 
crimp, soft, compact nature of the fleece is indicative of 
correlated qualities otherwise. Other than the points men- 
tioned the wool sheep is judged largely the same as the 
mutton animal. The fleece should be given first considera- 
tion, mutton-producing qualities being secondary. 

Fleece Characteristics. — The fleece of the fine-wool breeds 
is shorter, finer and denser than the wool grown on any other 
breed. The term fine wool is significant of quality as related 
to fineness. As extreme length and fineness are antagonistic, 
the fleece on the fine-wool breeds is comparatively short. 
The staple usually ranges from two to three inches in length 
having a close crimp and being very dense, meaning tech- 
nically a large number of fibers per square inch. It contains 
an excessive amount of yolk, scoured wool often shrinking 
as much as 60 per cent, or more of its original weight. 

The fleece of the fine-wool breeds completely covers the 
body from the muzzle extremity to the pasterns. Absence 
of wool over any part is seriously objectionable. The area 
or surface for producing wool has been materially increased 
by the development of the folds or wrinkles over the body. 
These folds are excessively developed in the American 
Merino, less so in the Delaine, with the fewest number 
appearing in the Rambouillet. The fineness and density 
of the fleece ranks in the same order, the American Merino 
producing the finest and the Rambouillet the coarsest wool 
of the three breeds. 

In judging fine wools, the length, crimp, density, distribu- 
tion, lustre, soundness and condition should all be carefully 



410 JUDGING SHEEP 

considered. The amount of yolk is also important, as an 
even distribution through the fleece indicates that the animal 
is in a healthy condition and therefore the wool is likely 
sound. The fleece should be thoroughly examined over 
all parts including the head, shoulders, back, sides, thighs, 
belly, and armpits. An evenly distributed, dense fleece with 
a close crimp and in a bright, lustrous, healthy condition is 
indicative of value, as measured by the demands of the 
manufacturer. This should be the guide in judging a fine- 
wool sheep the same as mutton form is judged according to 
the demands of the butcher and mutton consumer. 



Score Card for Fine-wool Sheep. 

Perfect score. 

General Appearance — 26 Points. 

Weight 4 

Form: level, deep, stylish, round rather than square ... 6 

Quality: clean, fine bone; silky hair; fine skin 6 

Temperament : active ... 4 

Condition : thick, even covering of firm flesh; full purse and 

flank, showing ripeness 6 

Head and Neck — 6 Points. 

Muzzle: fine, broad, wrinkled nose; pure white .... 

Eyes: large, clear, placid 

Face: wrinkled, covered with soft, velvety coat .... 

Forehead: broad, full 

Ears: soft, thick and velvety 

Neck : short, muscular, well set on shoulders 



FOREQTJARTERS 8 Points. 

Shoulder: strong, being deep and broad 4 

Brisket: projecting forward, breast wide 2 

Legs: straight, short, wide apart; shank smooth and fine 

Body — 16 Points. 

Chest: deep, full, indicating constitution 6 

Back: level, long; round-ribbed 4 

Loin: wide, level 4 

Flank: low, making underline straight 2 

Hindquarters — 8 Points. 

Hips: far apart, level, smooth 2 

Rump: long, level, wide 4 

Legs: straight, short, strong; shank smooth, fine .... 2 

Carried forward ■ 64 



WOOL TYPE 411 

Perfect score. 

Brought forward 64 

Fleece — 36 Points. 

Kind: Domestic, clean and bright. 
Territory, dirty or discolored. 

Bknket ( na i r y or having dead fibers. 
Class: Clothing, fiber under two inches in length or unsound. 
Delaine, fiber two to three inches in length. 
Combing, fiber over three inches in length and sound. 
Grade: fine, medium or coarse. 
Quantity: long, dense, even covering, especially over crown, 

cheek, armpit, hindlegs and belly 12 

Quality: fine fiber, crimp close, regular; even quality includ- 
ing tops of folds 12 

Condition: bright, lustrous, sound, pure, soft, even distribu- 
tion of yolk, with even surface to fleece 12 

Total .100 



Fine-wool Breeds. — The fine-wool breeds of sheep as 
described below are derivatives of the Spanish Merino. 
These breeds exhibit marked peculiarities in the skin folds 
and the unusually fine quality and large quantity of the 
wool produced. 

Merinos are sometimes classed into A, B, and C types on 
the basis of the presence or absence of the skin folds. 
Class A has heavy folds at the neck, over the body and hind- 
quarters. They are characterized by high percentage of wool 
and yolk to carcass weight. This class is represented by the 
Spanish or American Merino. 

Class B, has a smoother body than Class A and there are 
fewer folds in the skin and less yolk in the staple. This class 
is represented also by Spanish or American blood. 

Class C has a comparatively smooth body with very 
few folds except possibly around the neck and shoulders. 
This class is represented by the Delaine Merino and Ram- 
bouillet. 

American Merino. — The American Merino is the smallest 
of the Merino breeds, rams ranging in weight from 125 to 
135 pounds and ewes from 90 to 100. The form is angular, 
lacking in symmetry, and therefore desirable mutton-pro- 
ducing qualities. The body is wooled from the upper part 



412 



JUDGING SHEEP 



of the muzzle to the top of the hoofs with the exception of the 
ears and nose. The peculiar development for wool production 
gives the breed unusually dense fleece characteristics. The 
skin is excessively wrinkled over the neck and body. The 
head is small and has large, spirally twisted horns in the rams. 
The ewes are polled. From the standpoint of mutton pro- 



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^SP' 










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Fig. 173. — American Merino ewe. 



duction the breed is unusually defective, the heavy wool- 
producing qualities being antagonistic to the development 
of this quality. The fleece is short and very fine, and at 
times contains as much as 50 to 70 per cent, of yolk. The 
fleece is not excelled by any other breed in quantity or 
quality. Shearings of forty pounds or over are on record. 
The accumulation of foreign matter in the wool, caused by 



WOOL TYPE 



413 



the excessive amount of yolk, gives the fleece an unusually 
dark appearance. Scouring removes this entirely. The color 
of the muzzle is white like the other parts, which are very 
infrequently exposed, owing to the uniform and dense wool 
covering. The head is rather broad, the neck thin and the 
shoulders light. The body has fair depth, although it is some- 
what short and narrow. The breed is famous only for wool 
production. 




Fig. 174. — Delaine Merino ram. 



Delaine Merino. — The Delaine Merino is larger in size 
and smoother in form than the American type. Rams 
range in weight from 125 to 175 pounds and the ewes from 
100 to 140 pounds. The breeding out of the folds of the skin 
has been instrumental in the improvement of the mutton 
characteristics. The quality of the Delaine is good, both 
in wool and mutton production. The lower part of the 
face, muzzle, and lips are white and also that portion of 
the legs not covered by the fleece. The ears are rather 



414 JUDGING SHEEP 

small and covered with a fine quality of soft hair. The 
quality of the fleece in the Delaine is inferior to that of the 
American Merino, in not having the same degree of crimp 
or density. The fleece is also more open than in the Ameri- 
can type. The breed is either horned or polled, depending 
on the line of breeding which has been followed. The 
introduction of crosses has caused considerable variation, 
not only in the development of horns, but also in the size, 
smoothness, and compactness. The fleece characteristics 
have likewise varied with the breeding. The Delaine Merino 
does not have as much yolk in the wool as the American, 
however, the fleece is somewhat stronger and longer. Shear- 
ings of 15 to 20 pounds are not uncommon. 



Standard of Excellence and Scale of Points for Delaine 
or Class C Merino Sheep. 

Points. 

General Appearance — 23 Points. 

Weight: according to age: 30 pounds, six months; GO pounds, 

twelve months . . 4 

Form: low, compact, symmetrical 9 

Quality: bone and wool fine, hair silky 10 

Head and Neck — 9 Points. 

Muzzle: fine of good size, face medium length .... 2 

Eyes: bright, easily seen; forehead broad 2 

Ears: medium size, set well apart, coated with iine hair . 2 

Neck: short on top, deep, neatly blending head and shoulders 3 

Forequarters — 14 Points. 

Shoulders: well placed; chest deep, medium thick ... 8 
Brisket: carried well forward, with some breadth and fold or 

apron 2 

Legs: straight, short, strong; feet good 4 

Body — 10 Points. 

Back: straight, medium wide; loin wide 6 

Bibs: well sprung, long; flanks low 4 

Hindquarters — -12 Points. 

Hips: smooth; rump, long, level, wide 5 

Thighs: ranging from muscular to plump 3 

Legs: straight, short; stifle full; feet good .... 4 

Wool— 32 Points. 

Quality: fine, soft, clean, even 10 

Density: compact all over body 9 

Length: uniform, at least 2\ inches for twelve months . . 9 

Oil: light colored, evenly distributed 4 

Total 100 



WOOL TYI'/'J 



415 



Rambouillet. — The Rambouillet is the largest of the 
Merino breeds. More attention has been given to the 
mutton-produeing qualities than in the other two breeds of 
the fine-wool type. The breed may be eonsidered dual purpose 
in its eharaeteristics. The fleece is coarser and more open 
than in the other breeds. It eovers the entire body, however, 
with the exception of the muzzle extremity and the ears. Rams 




Fig. 175.— Rambouillet ram. 



of this breed range in weight from 175 to 200 pounds and ewes 
from 125 to 150. The eonstitution of the Rambouillet is 
exceptionally good. Specimens of the breed are large and 
vigorous in appearance. The body has good length and fair 
depth, although there is some inclination to stand high on the 
legs. The head is large, the nose strongly developed, and 
horns usually characterize males of the breed. From the 
mutton-producing standpoint the Rambouillet is very desir- 
able, although compared with the best Down breeds they arc 



416 



JUDGING SHEEP 



somewhat inferior. One of the principal objections to the 
breed is the inclination to coarseness of bone. The fleece 
averages about three inches in length and does not possess 
an excess of yolk like the other fine-wool breeds. As a 
combined wool and mutton producer the breed ranks well, 
having an acceptable mutton form and reasonably early 
maturing qualities. The breed is widely distributed. 




Fig. 176. — Lincoln ewe, illustrating femininity and breeding qualities. 



Breeding and Class Characteristics. — From the standpoint 
of the stockman sheep may be divided into breeding, fat, 
and feeder classes. The first includes pure breds of the 
various breeds, their grades and crosses. The second class 
includes fat sheep and lambs, and the third feeder sheep. 

Breeding Classes. — In selecting sheep for breeding purposes 
whether pure bred or grade, special attention should be 
given to age, weight, health, quality, constitution, and con- 
dition. These subjects have been fully treated only from 
the standpoint of the pure-bred and fat sheep, and the 
application of the points mentioned here is therefore neces- 



WOOL TYPE 



417 



sarily important. In selecting sheep for breeding purposes 
the age is important. Broken-mouthed ewes will neither 
thrive themselves nor produce strong, vigorous lambs. Ewes 
selected for this purpose should show indication of health, 
proper weight for age, good constitution, and quality of both 
wool and mutton attributes. Such ewes should be large 
and roomy and uniformly covered with a fine, dense fleece. 
In pure-bred classes breed type and sex characteristics are 




Fig. 177. — Grade-brooding ewe. (Photograph by author.) 



important. Rams and ewes should show masculinity and 
femininity respectively. 

Fat Sheep and Lambs. — Fat sheep and lambs should be 
judged according to the standard given formerly. Weight, 
quality, and condition are important. The fat sheep or 
lamb should be square, low set, compact, and fine in flesh 
texture. The back should be level, the loin wide, firm, and 
the quarters well developed. Fleece characteristics are not of 
special importance except that a reasonably dense fleece 
is usually associated with good mutton-producing qualities. 
27 



418 JUDGING SHEEP 

Open fleeces are objectionable on fat sheep as they are antag- 
onistic to good mutton-producing form and quality. 

Feeder Sheep.— Sheep selected for feeding purposes should, 
like breeding ewes, show unbroken mouths, good health, 
form, constitution, quality, and capacity. Large -framed 
sheep with angular bodies and long, open fleeces do not 
make good feeders. The age may vary, depending on the 
object in view. Early lambs are usually sold and consumed 
immediately, and therefore do not constitute a large propor- 
tion of sheep used for feeding purposes. Late lambs, wethers, 
and sheep which have attained the age of one year or more 
or ewes of proper qualification are frequently purchased for 
this purpose. A square, low-set body, thrift, capacity and a 
close, compact fleece are important. 

ANGORA GOATS. 

Importance. — The production of Angora goats is of cdnsid- 
erable importance, especially in certain sections and under 
specialized conditions. The breed is a native of Angora, in 
Asia Minor, having been imported into this country in 1849. 
As a general thing, the Angora is not an important factor 
on the average farm. However, it is deserving of consid- 
eration in its special fields of production. 

Purpose. — The introduction of the Angora goat into the 
field of live stock husbandry is comparatively recent, although 
the popularity which the breed has attained in some sections 
gives it a conspicuous place in the field of live stock pro- 
duction. The primary object for breeding the Angora is to 
obtain the fleece which usually sells for high prices, this 
depending, as in wool, on the length, quality and condition. 
The Angora is bred secondarily for mutton production. 
In judging stress should be placed, first, on the length, 
density, fineness and uniformity of fleece covering. Mutton- 
producing attributes should be given a secondary considera- 
tion. Angoras are judged in this respect very much like the 
fine-wool breeds of sheep. 

General Appearance. — In general appearance the Angora 
of approved breeding shows neatness and tidiness of form 



ANGORA GOATS 419 

and features. It is usually pure white in fleece markings. 
It is alert, having a keen expression, long, pendant ears, a 
body of medium length and depth but inclined to be narrow. 
The fleece parts along the back and hangs in wringlets almost 
to the ground in well-bred animals. 

Conformation^ — The Angora is on the average smaller than 
the common goat. The weight ranges from 50 to 100 pounds, 
depending on the age, breeding and condition. The body 
should be reasonably broad, long, deep and low set. The 
back should be straight and level. The body is inclined to 
be somewhat narrow and the legs short and strong. The head 
should show strong, clear-cut features. The ears usually 
droop and attain a length of six to eight inches. The eyes 
should be large and bright. The horns are grayish in color, 
inclining inward, backward, and then upward and outward, 
with a reasonable spread at the tips. In the females the 
horns are smaller, straighter and shorter and are inclined 
to grow more in an upward direction. 

The head should be broad and strong at the poll and 
taper gradually to the muzzle. In females, there is an 
incurving facial outline which is very characteristic. Taken 
as a whole, the animal should present a reasonably square, 
strong-lined contour. In many cases, however, this condition 
is emphasized by the peculiar growth of the fleece. 

Constitution.— Evidences of constitution are exhibited in 
a large, bright, prominent eye, a strong muzzle, and large, 
open nostrils. The chest should be broad, deep, and the 
heart girth full and the brisket rather prominent. There 
should be no indication of delicacy about the head and 
neck, although feminine characteristics may apparently por- 
tray this condition. Low, narrow shoulders and long, slender 
bone indicates a lack of vigor and constitutional develop- 
ment. Other than these points constitution is evidenced by 
the same characteristics as in other animals. 

Quality. — The horns should not be excessively large or 
coarse in texture. A coarse horn indicates coarse quality 
and otherwise undesirable characteristics. The bone should 
be clean, dense, and of ample size to insure a vigorous, con- 
tinuous period of usefulness. The head is indicative of 



420 



JUDGING SHEEP 




CD M 






ANGORA GOATS 421 

quality by the clean-cut features possessed. There should be 
no indication of coarseness about the muzzle or shoulders. 
The fleece is a reliable guide to general quality. A close, 
compact fleece, soft to the touch and with tightly twisted 
spirals indicates quality development. A bright, lustrous 
fleece, free from kemp and a pink, healthy skin, characterize 
these animals as having desirable breeding qualities. 

Fleece.- — The fleece should be dense and cover the entire 
body uniformly. Special emphasis should be placed on the 
belly covering. The annual growth should not be less than 
ten inches. The density should be such that an average- 
sized Angora will shear from three to five pounds. The 
fleece should hang in wringlets or spirals tightly twisted up 
to the skin. Loose, wavy hair is objectionable as it indi- 
cates coarseness throughout. The fleece should be bright 
and lustrous, having great tensile strength and freedom from 
kemp or lead-colored hair. This depreciates the value of 
the fleece regardless of its quality otherwise. Formerly it was 
thought impossible to breed out these undesirable qualities 
but recent improvements disprove the idea. 

The fleece of the Angora, known as mohair from a com- 
mercial point of view, differs from the wool in sheep in 
not having exterior scales and felting characteristics. The 
mohair covers an undergrowth of hair which is technically 
known as kemp. Mohair is lustrous and white, at times 
attaining a length of sixteen to eighteen inches. Its value is 
determined by the length, density, fineness and condition. 
Emphasis should be placed on these characteristics as well as 
on uniformity of covering and freedom from kemp or other 
foreign matter. The fleece should extend from the base of the 
horns, completely encircling the neck, and thence back over 
the body, covering the body proper, arm pits, belly and legs. 
Angoras which have been graded up by using a pure-bred 
sire on common goats are frequently bare over the belly, 
in the arm pits, on the legs, and have an inferior quality of 
mohair. 

Breed and Sex Characteristics. — The breed is character- 
ized by the possession of horns, both in males and females, 
the characteristic fleece known as mohair, and the absence of 



422 JUDGING SHEEP 

the strong musky odor of the common goat. Specimens of 
the breed are comparatively small in size, although reason- 
ably strong in constitution, especially after attaining the age 
of two months. The fleece is exceptionally long in well-bred 
individuals and does not possess felting qualities like wool. 
The fleece is shed each spring if not shorn. This should be 
considered in judging when in this shedding condition. While 
some Angoras are colored it is rather a rare characteristic in 
well-bred specimens. Colored spots on the skin are very 
objectionable. 

The sex characteristics should be portrayed the same as 
in other animals. The males should possess a broad, strong 
head, rather large horns, a full neck, and a broad, deep body. 
Femininity is indicated by bright expressive eyes, incurving 
facial outlines, and a general appearance of refinement. 

Adaptation. — Angoras seem especially adapted to a dry 
climate, although they are found in nearly every State in the 
Union. Large flocks are maintained through the west and 
southwest, principally in New Mexico and Texas. With good 
care they will adapt themselves to a wide range of conditions. 

Standard of Excellence for Angora Goats 

Points. 

Fineness and Lustre of Fleece: 

Extra Good 20 

Good 14 

Medium 8 

Quantity of Fleece: 

Extra Good 20 

Good 14 

Medium 8 

Freedom from Kemp: 

Extra Good 20 

Good 14 

Medium 8 

Size of Bone, Breadth and Depth of Carcass: 

Extra Good 20 

Good 14 

Medium 8 

Constitution and Form: 

Extra Good 20 

Good 14 

Medium 8 

Total points for perfect animal • 100 

Total points for good animal . 70 

Total points for medium animal . 40 



CHAPTER XIV. 

APPLICATION OF JUDGING AND SELECTION TO 
BREEDING AND FINISHING FARM ANIMALS. 

Individual. — The individual animal is the nucleus for 
live stock improvement. This fact is evidenced by the 
immense practical use which is being made of the pure-bred 
sire in the improvement of herds and flocks of horses, cattle, 
sheep and swine. Davenport quotes that the sire is half 
the herd or even more. He is half of the first generation, 
three-quarters of the next, seven-eighths of the third and 
so on until, if judicious selection be maintained for a few 
generations, the character of the herd will be fixed by the 
sire alone. This emphasizes the fact that if the breeder 
must choose between the selection of a pure-bred sire and a 
number of varying females, in all cases the pure-bred sire 
should be selected in preference to following the latter 
course. This plan of breeding has direct application from 
the standpoint of live stock judging and selection. Grant- 
ing this statement, the sire can be made of much greater 
importance by keener judging, closer selection and wider 
usage on farm herds and flocks. 

Herd Improvement. — Herd improvement is divided into 
two fundamental divisions, namely, the breeding of pure- 
bred and grade animals. In either case, the most careful 
judging and selection will accomplish the most noticeable 
results in a given time. The breeder who eliminates the 
inferior individuals from the standpoint of individuality as 
well as those which fail to respond satisfactorily to the 
breeding test, must not only be a breeder in the general sense 
of the term, but a judge of the highest order. If otherwise, 
the maximum results obtainable from careful judging and 
close selection will not materialize in the herd. The breeder, 

(423) 



424 



APPLICATION OF JUDGING 




ATTRIBUTES OF THE BREEDER 425 

in other words, must be a keen student of animal form and 
attainments. He must be able to detect to a reasonable 
degree of accuracy the probable outcome of the individuals 
which he chooses to raise the standard of his herd. It is 
only by continuous elimination, generation after generation, 
that the maximum results of selection are obtained. There 
must be a standard or an ideal toward which breeding opera- 
tions may be directed. This involves an unusual amount of 
animal knowledge, both as applied to the individual, the 
herd and the breed which is being perfected or improved. 




Fig. 180. — Uniform type, illustrating careful judging and selection for the 

show ring. 

Attributes of the Breeder Responsible for Degree of Improve- 
ment. — A proper knowledge of the habits and treatment 
of animals is most important from the breeder's point of 
view. Those who have been intimately associated with 
animals during their entire lifetime almost without exception 
rank as the keenest judges and breeders of live stock. The 
best shepherds are those who have assisted and grown in 
the ranks from early life to finally attain the management of a 
flock. It is not only a knowledge of animals which may 
have been obtained early or late in life but the direct associa- 
tion in feeding and management which makes the best 
judge, and therefore the best breeder. A first-class judge 
who produces prize-winning animals is almost invariably 



426 APPLICATION OF JUDGING 

one who spends much time in studying the peculiar traits, 
form and quality of his animals. It is in this way usually 
that the master breeders have learned the details of structure, 
the peculiarities of individuals, herds and breeds and thereby 
attained the greatest success as breeders on the farm and in 
the show ring. 

Live Stock Shows. 1 — The importance of live stock shows 
in establishing standards for herd and breed improvement 
can scarcely be overestimated. While much mediocre stock 
has been shown and irrational practices followed in prepar- 
ing specimens for exhibition much valuable knowledge 
has been so gained. The fact that the good and bad con- 
ditions have both existed has given the student of judging 
and selection an opportunity to consider and decide logically 
on the value of such practices in perfecting animal form and 
studying its related problems. Wherever sound practices 
have been followed they have usually continued with the 
result that future generations have been improved thereby. 
A better opportunity of carefully studying these conditions 
has never been afforded the student or breeder. Live stock 
shows have formed a most important nucleus by which the 
best practices of breeding, feeding and fitting have been sifted 
from the various methods and practices followed in the 
preparation of breeding and fat animals for the show ring. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

General. 

A Partial Index to Animal Husbandry Literature, by C. S. Plumb. 
Published by the author, Columbus, Ohio. 

Principles and Practice of Live Stock Judging, by Carl W. Gay. 
Macmillan Co., New York. 

Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, by C. S. Plumb. Ginn & Co., 
New York. 

Judging Live Stock, by John A. Craig. Kenyon Printing Co., 
Des Moines, la. 

Farm Animals, by Hunt & Burkett. Orange Judd Co., New York. 

Principles of Breeding, by Eugene Davenport. Ginn & Co., New 
York. 

Beginnings in Animal Husbandry, by C. S. Plumb. Webb Pub- 
lishing Co., St. Paul, Minn. 

1 Study International Live Stock Show Catalogue. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 427 

Farm Live Stock of Great Britain, by Robert Wallace. Oliver & 

BO Biedm n g d °Farm Animals, by P. R. Marshall. Sanders Publishing 

C Far C meS g Cyclopedia of Agriculture, by Wilcox and Smith. Orange 

JU Se C S°t^ 

The Book of Live Stock Champions, by P. H. Hale, rlale ruD 

US feual-'of P^r^imals, by M. W. Harper. Macmillan Co., 

N Tnim°a r i k 'Husbandry for Schools, by M. W. Harper. Macmillan 

CO T^ e Stock k JudQ;ing for Beginners. Cir. No. 29, revised edition, 
jJfclOlS M uWersity Agricultural Experiment Station, Lafay- 

^Horit, Cattle, Sheep, and Swine, by G. W. Curtis. Rural Pub- 

HS Age g of °DomeItiI Animals, by R. 8. Huidekoper. F. A. Davis, Pub., 

Ph D a mSc a Animals, by R. L. Allen. A. 0. Moore, Pub., New York. 

Horses and Mules. 
Productive Horse Husbandry, by Carl W. Gay. J. B. Lippincott 
^TheSstBook, by J. H. S. Johnstone. Sanders Publishing Co., 

C T C h a e S °Horse by I. P. Roberts. Macmillan Co New York. 

Hots? Breeding by J. H. Sanders. Sanders Publishing Co., Chicago. 
MS^SSS'Sd Grades of Horses and Mules, by R. C. Obrecht. 

B £^VK^S« purdue 

^t^^^^Trt^T' ^nlVSnkins, Pub., 

Ne p rIt s r oi the Horse, by M. H. Hayes. Thacker & Co London. 
Monies, Past and Present, by Sir Walter Gibbey. Vinton & Co., 

LO Sre°e n ding and Rearing of Jacks Jennets, and Mules, by L. W. 

^ses,^ «* SuteW - 

Horace Cox, London. 

Cattle. 

Shorthorn Cattle, by A. H. Sanders. Sanders Publishing Co., 
C LitT Sketches of Famous Beef Cattle, by C. S. Plumb. Published 
*£^*h2SZ£^'* McDonald and Sinclair. Vinton 
& Beef Production, by H. W. Mumford. Published by the author, 
Urbana, 111. 



428 APPLICATION OF JUDGING 

History of Abderdeen-Angus Cattle, by McDonald and Sinclair. 
Vinton & Co., London. 

Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, by C. H. Eckles. Macmillan 
Co., New York. 

Modern Packing House, by F. W. Wilder. Nickerson and Collins, 
Chicago. 

Market Grades and Classes of Cattle, by H. W. Mumford. Bulletin 
No. 78, Illinois Experiment Station, Urbana. 

Market Classes and Grades of Meat, by L. D. Hall. Bulletin No. 
147, Illinois Experiment Station, Urbana. 

Swine. 

Swine, by William Dietrich. Sanders Publishing Co., Chicago. 

Hog Book, by H. C. Dawson. Sanders Publishing Co., Chicago. 

Swine in America, by F. D. Coburn. Orange Judd Co., New York. 

Swine Husbandry, by F. D. Coburn. Orange Judd Co., New York. 

Market Classes and Grades of Swine, by William Dietrich, Bulletin 
No. 97, Illinois Experiment Station, Urbana. 

Productive Swine Husbandry, by G. E. Day, Lippincott & Co., 
Philadelphia. 

Sheep and Goats. 

Sheep Farming in America, by Joseph E. Wing. Sanders Publishing 
Co., Chicago. 

The Domestic Sheep, by Henry Stewart, Chicago. 

Modern Sheep, Breeds and Management, by W. J. Clarke. Ameri- 
can Sheep Breeder Co., Chicago. 

Fitting Sheep for Show and Market, by W. J. Clarke. Draper 
Publishing Co., Chicago. 

Manual of Angora Goat Raising, by G. F. Thompson, Chicago. 

Market Classes and Grades of Sheep, by W. C. Coffey. Bulletin 
No. 129, Illinois Experiment Station, Urbana. 

The Wool Grower and the Wool Trade, by F. R. Marshall and L. 
L. Heller. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 

Poultry Husbandry, by J. P. Lippincott. Lea & Febiger, Philadel- 
phia. 

Anatomy of Domestic Animals, by L. W. Sisson. W. B. Saunders 
Publishing Co., Philadelphia. 



APPENDIX. 



Pure-bred Live Stock Registry Associations. 

Horses. 

Percheron Society of America, Wayne Dinsmore, Secretary, Union 

St tJoA™^'*orse Association, C. E. Stubbs, Secretary, 

F tmer d ican W Clyde S dale Association, R. B. Ogilvie, Secretary, Union 

St0 ^I v ^&&fLooi a tion, Chas. Burgess, Secretary, Wenona, 

^American Association of Importers and Breeders of Belgian Draft 

Horses, J. D. Connor, Jr., Secretary, Wabash lnd. s ecre tarv 

American Suffolk Horse Association, A. Graham Galbiaith, becietary, 

D American Hackney Horse Society, Gurney C. Gue, Secretary, 308 
W F rh St CoSHo°S Soclty of America, Duncan E. Willett, Secre- 
'^ermt^noverian and Oldenburg Coach Horse Association of 
^^B^^S^^'^ dicker, Secretary, 
^ImSir'MoSan Register Association, T. E. Boyce, Secretary, 
M SSs V addle Horse Breeders' Association, R. H. Lillard, Secre- 
^Imeriln T&& Register Association, W. H. Knight, Secretary, 
"^tZ!^ m™' America, Henry K. Bush Brown, Secre- 
^he^c^'QubT W. H. Rowe, Secretary, 5th Ave. and 46th St., 
N Wel S h r pon N y aid Cob Society of America, Geo. E. Brown, Secretary, 
American Shetland Pony Club, Miss Julia M. Wade, Secretary, 
^iTericknlck Stock Stud Book, J. W. Jones, Secretary, Columbia, 
Tenn. 



(429) 



430 APPENDIX 



Cattle. 

American Shorthorn Breeders' Association, F. W. Harding, Secre- 
tary, Chicago, 111. 

The Polled Durham Breeders' Association, J. M. Martz, Secretary, 
Greenville, Ohio. 

American Hereford Cattle Breeders' Association, R. J. Kinzer, 
Secretary, Kansas City, Mo. 

American Aberdeen-Angus Breeders' Association, Chas. Gray, 
Secretary, 17 Exchange -Ave., Chicago, 111. 

American Galloway Breeders' Association, Robt. W. Brown, Secre- 
tary, 817 Exchange Ave., Chicago, 111. 

The Red Polled Cattle Club of America, H. A. Martin, Secretary, 
Gotham, Wis. 

American Devon Cattle Club, L. P. Sisson, Secretary, Charlottes- 
ville, Va. 

American Jersey Cattle Club, R. M. Gow, Secretary, 8 W. 17th 
St., New York, N. Y. 

American Guernsey Cattle Club, William H. Caldwell, Secretary, 
Peterboro, N. H. 

Holstein-Friesian Association of America, F. L. Houghton, Secre- 
tary, Brattleboro, Vt. 

Ayrshire Breeders' Association, C. M. Winslow, Secretary, Brandon, 
Vermont. 

Brown Swiss Cattle Breeders' Association, Ira Inman, Secretary, 
Beloit, Wis. 

Dutch Belted Cattle Association of America, G. G. Gibbs, Secretary, 
Marksboro, N. J. 

Swine. 

American Berkshire Association, Frank S. Springer, Secretary, 510 
E. Monroe St., Springfield, 111. 

National Poland-China Record Association, A. M. BrOwn, Secretary, 
Winchester, Ind. 

Standard Poland-China Record Association, Geo. F. Woodworth, 
Secretary, Maryville, Mo. 

American Poland-China Record Association, W. M. McFadden, 
Secretary, Union Stock Yards, Chicago, 111. 

National Duroc-Jersey Record Association, J. R. Pfander, Secretary, 
Peoria, 111. 

American Duroc-Jersey Record Association, T. P. Pearson, Secre- 
tary, Thornton, Ind. 

Ohio Improved Chester White Swine Breeders' Association, J. C. 
Hiles, Secretary, Cleveland, Ohio. 

Cheshire Swine Breeders' Association, Ed. S. Hill, Secretary, Free- 
ville, N. Y. 

American Essex Association, F. M. Strout, Secretary, McLean, 111. 

American Yorkshire Club, Harry G. Krum, Secretary, White Bear 
Lake, Minn. 

American Tam worth Swine Record Association, E.N. Ball, Secretary 
Hamburg, Mich. 



GLOSSARY OF HORSE AND MULE MARKET TERMS 431 
American Hampshire Swine Record Association, E. C. Stone, Secre- 

ta Nktoal M™e-foot Swine Record Association, W. H. Morris, Secre- 
tary, Indianapolis, Ind. 

Sheep. 
American Leicester Breeders' Association, A. J. Temple, Secretary, 
C Xrr?canCptswold Registry Association, F. W. Harding, Secretary, 
W Th k e eS Natio / ial Lincoln Sheep Breeders' Association, Bert Smith, 
^l^l^n&TBreeders' Association, Frank S. Springer, 
Se lSknS&e%egistry Association, Miss Julia M. Wade, 
Se AmS'an cEfid Do^n Record Association, W. A. Shafor, Secretary, 

H Tm 1 e t Scan H°ampshir e Sheep Association, Comfort A. Taylor, Secre- 
tarv 310 East Chicago St., Coldwater, Mich. 

Continental ^orsetClub, Joseph E. Wing, Secretary, Mechamcsburg, 

^American Cheviot Sheep Society, F. E. Dawley, Secretary, Fayette- 

Vil Am^ricIn Tunis Sheep Breeders' Association, Chas. Roundtree. 

SeC Rl a n y e'y MSS? Seders' Association, J. E. Wing, Secretary, 

M vtmo^ and Ohio Merino Sheep Breeders' Association, 

Wesley Bishop, Secretary, Delaware, Ohio. . Tn Wnr, 

National Delaine Merino Sheep Breeders' Association, J. B. Johnson, 
Secretary 248 West Pike St., Canonsburg, Fa. . . 

Imedckn Rambouillet Sheep Breeders' Association, Dwight Lincoln, 
Secretary, Milford Center, Ohio. 

GLOSSARY OF HORSE AND MULE MARKET TERMS. 1 
A Bull— A horse so windy that he cannot stand much 

exertion without choking. m 

A Few Hairs Off.— A skin blemish not haired over; usually 

a wire mark which may be either large or small. 

A Hole In.— Used in speaking of an animal that is believed 

to be defective in some manner but at present it is not 

aP An r indian— A wild or vicious horse difficult to handle 
in or out of the stall. 

i From Bulletin No. 122, Courtesy Illinois Experiment Station, Urbana, 111. 



432 APPENDIX 

At the Halter.— See No. 6, Auction Rules. 

Beefy Hocks. — Thick, meaty hocks, lacking in quality. 

Bench-legged. — See knock-kneed. 

Blue-eye. — An unsound eye with blue appearance. The 
sight may or may not be entirely gone. 

Bobber or Jig Back. — A horse or mule that wobbles in hind- 
quarters when he moves, due to an unsound or weak back 
in the region of the loin. 

Boggy in Hocks. — Bog spavins. 

Bow-legged. — Too wide apart at the knees, the opposite 
of knock-kneed. 

Bowed Tendon. — An enlarged tendon back of the canon, 
due to an injury. 

Broken Knees. — Knees which have had the skin broken 
from a fall or a bruise and much enlarged. 

Buck-kneed. — Knees bent forward when standing. 

Bull Pen. — An auction ring at any market where horses 
are sold. 

Bush. — To deduct a part of a stated sale price on account 
of a blemish, or unsoundness not mentioned or not apparent 
at time of sale, or for other reasons. 

Calf-kneed. — Knees bent too far back — the opposite of 
buck-kneed. 

Capped Hock. — The point of the hock back of the web 
enlarged. Caused by a bruise of the bursa. 

Car Bruise. — Bruised in car in shipping. If freshly done 
swelling and inflammation will be present. 

Cartilage. — Prominent lateral cartilage or incipient side 
bone. 

Chancy. — Purchased at a moderate price because of an 
uncertainty, with prospects for developing into something 
good. 

Cock Ankle. — Standing bent forward on the fetlocks — more 
often on the hind ones. 

Coon-footed. — Long and very low pasterns. 

Coupling. — The space or connection between the dorsal 
vertebrae and the pelvis on top of the back. An animal 
that has a long coupling is too long in the lumbar vertebrae. 
This is best measured by the distance of last rib from hip. 



GLOSSARY OF HORSE AND MULE MARKET TERMS 433 

Cow-hocked. — Standing with hocks together and hind- 
toes out. 

Crampy. — In hindlegs — raising either one or both legs 
up with a jerk. More apparent when the animal has been 
standing and is cool. 

In the Back. — When the head is elevated and the animal 
is compelled to move backward he raises his tail and shows 
a quivering of the flanks, soreness of the loin and an inclina- 
tion to drag his feet. 

Cribber. — An animal having the vice of biting or setting 
the teeth against something and " sucking wind." 

Cross-firing. — Hitting one of the forefeet with the opposite 
hindfoot when traveling. 

Curb. — An injury or sprain of the ligament at the back 
of the hock which usually causes an enlargement. 

Curby Hock. — The back of the hock is rounding when 
viewed from the side. 

Cushion. — An enlarged bursa occurring just below the 
hock near the forward edge on the outside of the canon. 
A Michigan pad. 

Cutting . — Interfering . 

Docked. — Having the end of the tail cut off. 

Docked and Set. — By an operation the end of the tail is 
cut off and the stump is set up. 

Dummy. — A horse whose brain is affected, the cause 
usually being overfeeding and lack of exercise. The symp- 
toms are listlessness and hesitancy in moving; a vacant 
stare in the eyes and a proneness to cock the ears and look 
sideways and upward; also, the holding of hay and feed 
in the mouth without any attempt at mastication. 

Ewe Neck. — A deficiency of muscling causing a depression 
at the top of the neck just in front of the withers. 

Falls Out of Bed. — Pulls back on halter rope. 

Feather in Eye. — A mark across the eyeball not touching 
the pupil, often caused by an injury. It may or may not 
impair the sight. 

Filled-in Hocks. — May mean either bog spavins or thorough- 
pins, though most generally the former. 

28 



434 APPENDIX 

Fistula. — Fistulous withers. An abscess occurring in the 
region of the withers. 

Forging. — Striking the front shoes with the toe of the 
hind ones. 

Founder.— Inflammation of the feet causing lameness. 
Technically known as laminitis. 

Glass-eye. — See wall-eye. 

Goose Rump. — A short, steep croup and narrow at point 
of the buttock. 

Gristle. — An incipient side bone. 

Halter Puller. — Pulls back on halter rope. 

Hand. — Four inches. Horses are measured at the highest 
point on the withers in terms of hands. 14-2 would mean 
14 hands and 2 inches, or 58 inches. 

Heavey. — Having the heaves. 

Hipped. — Having the point of one hip broken over so 
that it appears lower than when normal. It does not materi- 
ally impair usefulness. 

Hitching.— Having a shorter stride in one hindleg than 
the other. 

Hog Back. — A roached back, the opposite from sway back. 

Hollow Back. — A sway back. 

Interfering.— Striking the fetlock or canon with the 
opposite foot as it passes, either in front or behind. 

Jack.— A bone spavin. 

Jibber. — An unguidable horse, often "green." 

Knee-banger. — One that interferes — hitting his knees. 

Knee-sprung. — Over on the knees caused by relaxation 
of the extensor muscles — sometimes spoken of as buck- 
knees. 

Knock-kneed.— The front legs bent in at the knees with 
feet wide apart. Sometimes called bench-legged. 

Legs Go. — See No. 5, Auction Rules. 

Light in the Timber.- — Light bones, especially in the canons. 

Little Green. — Not thoroughly broken. Often means an 
animal that will not pull. 

Lugger. — One that pulls or lugs on the bit. 

Lunker. — An exceptionally big, heavy-boned horse. 

Makes a Little Noise. — A very little windy. 



GLOSSARY OF HORSE AND MULE MARKET TERMS 435 

Michigan Pad. — A puff or cushion that occurs just below 
the hock on the outside of the hind canon near the forward 
edge. The same as outside cushion. 

Moon Blindness. — Periodic opthalmia. 

Nicked. — An operation severing the cords on one side of the 
tail to straighten it. 

Nigger-heeled. — Front toes turned out, heels in. 

Old Skin or Skate. — A worn-out animal. 

Outside Cushion. — The same as cushion or Michigan pad. 

Over-reach. — Reaching farther forward with the hindfeet 
in traveling than where the front ones were picked up. 

Paddle. — Winging out with the front feet. 

Parrot Mouth. — The upper submaxillary longer than the 
lower jaw. 

Periodic Ophthalmia. — Inflammatory affection of the inte- 
rior of the eye. It usually disappears in a week or ten days 
and returns again in a few weeks. The cycles are often com- 
pleted in about a month and because of this fact many 
people believe the trouble is in some way related to the moon 
changes, hence the name "moon blindness." 

Pig-eye. — A small eye set too much in the head and with 
thick eyelids. It accompanies, in general, animals with a 
lymphatic temperament and with imperfect vision. 

Pigeon-toed. — Front toes turned in — the opposite of nigger- 
heeled. 

Pink-eye. — A disease causing a white skum to form over 
the eye often causing blindness. 

Poll Evil. — A fistulous condition or abscess on or near 
the poll. 

Pones. — Lumps of fat on a mule's body. 

Posting. — Rising and falling in the saddles with each 
alternative step when the horse is trotting. 

Puffs. — Wind galls, bog spavins, or thoroughpins. 

Quarter Crack. — A vertical crack on the. side of the hoof 
often running to coronet. 

Quittor. — A fistulous opening upon the heel or coronary 
band of the foot. 

Rat Tail. — A tail with but little hair. 



436 APPENDIX 

Rejects. — Animals not filling the guarantee and conse- 
quently turned back on the hands of the seller. 

Rickety. — The same as bobber or jig back. 

Ring-bone. — A bony growth on the upper or lower pastern 
bones and most always causing lameness. 

Ripper. — An exceptionally good big animal. 

Roach Back. — See hog back. 

Roarer. — Defective in wind. Very windy. 

Rough Behind. — Having a bone spavin. 

Rounding Hock. — Having a curb. 

Sand Crack. — A vertical crack in the middle of the hoof 
often running to coronet. 

Scalping. — When speeding, the horse strikes the front 
side of the hind coronet, pastern or canon against the front 
toe. Also, applied to a trader that buys and sells animals 
on the market. 

Seam in Hoof. — A scar in hoof from an injury of some kind, 
such as cracks, wire marks, calks, etc. 

Seedy Toe.— A separation of the walls of the toe from the 
sensitive lamina?. Very often the end of the toes turns 
slightly up. 

Serpentine. — An animal that extends and withdraws his 
tongue as a serpent. 

Serviceably Sound. — See No. 2, Auction Eules. 

Shoe Boil. — A bruise at elbow which results in an abscess, 
caused from the animal lying on his foot in such a way 
that the heel of the shoe strikes the elbow. 

Sickle Hock. — Too much bend in the hock. A conformation 
predisposed to curbs. 

Side-bone. — An ossified lateral cartilage occurring on 
either side at the top of the foot. 

Slab-sided. — Flat-ribbed. 

Smoke His Pipe. — An animal with lip torn where the bridle 
bit rests. 

Smoky Eye. — A clouded eye with whitish appearance. 

Smooth Mouth. — An aged horse. 

Sound. — See No. 1, Auction Rules. 

Speck in Eye. — A spot on the eye not covering the pupil. 
It may or may not impair the sight. 



GLOSSARY OF HORSE AND MULE MARKET TERMS 437 

Speedy Cutting. — Striking the inside of the hind canon 
against the front foot as the hindfoot is brought forward 
and passes the front foot on the outside in over-reaching. 
This only happens in speedy horses. 

Splay-footed. — Nigger-heeled. 

Splint. — A bony growth on the canon-bone occurring 
most often on the front legs and either on the inside or out, 
but more often on the inside. 

Stands a Little Careless in Front. — Knees sprung or buck- 
kneed. 

Stringy. — String-halt. A convulsive action in the hind- 
legs flexing either one or both up with a jerk. 

Stump-sucker. — A cribber. 

Sucker. — An animal with some defect which is not always 
apparent. 

Sweeney. — Atrophied shoulder muscles causing a depression. 

Thick Neck. — A neck too thick at the shoulder for a collar 
to fit well. 

Thoroughpins. — Puffiness occurring in the web of the hock. 

Tongue Loller. — Permitting the tongue to hang out. 

Trephined. — A hole in the jaw bored for removing a molar 
tooth. 

Trot Out Short. — Sore in front, having a short stride. 

Wall-eye. — The iris a pearly white color, due to a lack 
of pigment. Sometimes called glass-eye. 

Weaver.— Continual swaying back and forth when standing 
in the stall. 

Wind and Work. — See No. 3, Auction Rules. 

Wind Galls. — Puffs occurring at the upper part of the 
fetlock joints. 

Windy. — One that whistles or roars when exerted. 

Whistler.— Defective in wind. See windy. 

Winging. — Throwing the front feet out or in when traveling. 

Worker. — See No. 4, Auction Rules. 



AUCTION RULES. 

Note. — In the auction ring sales are made under certain 
well-understood rules which are published and announced 
from the auction stand, recorded and stand as a guarantee. 
The following are the principal rules which govern sales in 
the auction ring. Exceptions to these rules may be an- 
nounced from the auction stand pointing out the defects, 
in which case they are recorded and go with the horse. 

1. Sound. — Perfectly sound in every way. 

2. Serviceably Sound. — Virtually a sound animal, barring 
slight blemishes which do not interfere with his usefulness 
in any way. His wind and eyes must be good, but a spot or 
streak in the eye which does not affect the sight will be 
considered serviceably sound as long as the pupil of the eye 
is good. He must not be lame or sore in any way. 

3. Wind and Work. — The only guarantee this carries 
with it is that the animal has good wind and is a good worker. 

4. Work Only. — He must be a good worker and everything 
else goes with him. No other guarantee than to work. 

5. Legs Go.— Everything that is on the animal's legs go 
with him; nothing is guaranteed except that he must not 
be lame or crampy. He must, however, be serviceably sound 
in every other respect. 

6. At the Halter. — Sold just as he stands without any 
recommendations. He may be lame, vicious, balky, kicker 
or anything else. The purchaser takes all the risk. The title 
only is guaranteed. 



(438) 



BRIEF DESCRIPTIONS APPLICABLE TO MOST 
BREEDS OF CATTLE, SWINE, AND SHEEP. 

By Robert Wallace, 

UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH. 

General Points of Beef-producing Cattle. — The masculine 
or the feminine characteristics naturally represented in 
individual specimens of each sex. 

General appearance stylish, and showing quality; figure 
compact and well-proportioned, deep, broad, and low set 
as opposed to being leggy. 

Head broad between the eyes, flat across the crown (with 
exceptions in polled breeds) and down the face, which should 
be neither "dished" nor Roman, but short, or of medium 
length, with a quiet expression; forehead broad and full; 
muzzle broad, full, distinct, and dewy; mouth large; jaw 
wide; nostrils large; eyes large, placid, and clear; horns 
none, or varying in length, color, and strength, according to 
breed, fine and symmetrical, set on the crest of the head; 
ears full and sensitive, of fine texture, well covered with 
hair, and varying slightly in position in the different breeds. 

Neck medium length, full at the " neck-vein," or " shoulder- 
vein" where it joins the body, broad (muscular and crested 
in the male), but fine, and tapering toward the head — to 
which it should join without thickness or chokiness — and 
straight from the shoulder top to the roots of the horns, 
excepting when it rises into the crest of a bull. 

Body long and deep, equally balanced before and behind; 
back broad throughout its length, smooth and even, and 
straight from the top of the shoulders to the tail-head; the 
frame well and equally covered with firm flesh, especially 
in the regions of the best cuts, not patchy on the hooks, 
tail-head, rump, shoulders, or other parts (when prime fat, 
a little pit may be felt on the point of each hook). The trunk, 

(439) 



440 APPENDIX 

looked at from any point, should resemble as nearly as 
possible a parallelogram; the under and upper lines straight 
and parallel; brisket projecting well forward and wide, 
making the forelegs stand well apart; loin thick and broad; 
flank full and deep, even with the underline; foreflank 
to correspond, well filled; tail thin, set on well back (but 
not too high), and falling perpendicularly. 

Skin moderately thick (not papery), pliable, and mellow 
or mossy to touch; hair soft and abundant, covering all 
parts well. 

Shoulders well covered with flesh and laid back over the 
ribs, so that the natural depression behind them in the 
region of the heart or girth line should not be too pronounced, 
broad and compact on top; the shoulder-blades adhering 
closely to the trunk; shoulder-points fine, "snug," and well 
covered. 

Chest, viewed from before or from behind the shoulder, 
full, wide, deep, and massive; girth large; crops full. 

The forearm and leg straight and short; muscle large 
and broad ; leg-bones dense and strong, though smooth, 
fine, and flat (abnormally small bone shows tendency to 
diminished size) ; legs short and well under the body ; hoofs 
clear and oily looking. 

Hindquarters full and well packed, lengthy from the 
hook-bones to the pin-bones (which should be well apart); 
rump wide and even, and the tail-head smooth, not patchy, 
and no part rising above the back level; hips smoothly 
covered, distance from each other to harmonize with other 
parts; thighs broad, thick, and well down toward the 
hocks; twist or inner thigh full, deep, and plump. 

Ribs thickly fleshed, well sprung (arched), and deep, filling 
up deficiency behind the shoulder and hollow in front of the 
hooks, i. e.., "well-ribbed home." 

Legs straight and short, shanks fine and smooth. 

The lines of the body flowing, not sharp or abrupt, with 
a general balance of parts to please the eye; carriage stylish. 

Points Generally Applicable to all Breeds of Swine. — In 
judging, it is best to begin at the feet and legs, as these are 
most important, on account of their having to carry the 



POINTS APPLICABLE TO ALL BREEDS OF SWINE 441 

weight when the animal is fat and heavy, and to insure 
firm, free action. The feet should be proportionate and 
neat; the pasterns strong; the legs perfectly straight and 
well set, level with the outside of the body, with plenty 
of fine, flat bone, fleshed well down in both fore and hind- 
quarters; feet wide apart; loin strong, and as broad as the 
shoulder-head, which should be compact and free from any 
opening or looseness; the back broad all the way, straight 
and level, not drooping too much at the rump when the 
animal walks, and extending over the neck. Pigs are all 
liable to arch in the back and droop at the rump when 
standing. The underline should be parallel, and continued 
below the jowl; the chest wide and deep; the belly full, 
but not flabby;, the quarters long and wide, and straight 
from hip to tail; hams broad, full and deep to hocks; the 
flank thick, full, and well let down; the ribs well sprung, 
and sides deep; the neck thick, especially toward the 
shoulders, and of proportionate length; the ears vary from 
a foot long to a few inches, each breed having its own special 
size, shape and position; the head broad between the eyes; 
the nose long or short, according to breed; the under jaw 
shorter than the upper; the cheeks full; the eye not too 
small, quick, but mild ; the tail stout and long, and set high, 
but not coarse, and a tuft of long, fine hairs on its tip; the 
body well covered all over with flesh, and of a rectangular 
shape from all points of sight, deep and wide before and 
behind; the skin medium in thickness, and covered with 
a sufficient coat of characteristic hair. 

Though the points enumerated are those looked for at 
shows, it has been most forcibly pointed out by Sanders 
Spencer, one of the most successful breeders and exporters 
of white pigs in England, and also by those interested in the 
bacon-curing trade, that the most economical pig to breed, 
and consequently the one which ought to be encouraged in 
the show yard, should be long in the body, a good medium 
depth in the ribs, light in the neck and forequarters, and 
heavy and deep behind in the hams or gammon; or, as 
A. W. Shaw, of Limerick, has tersely put it: "What is really 
wanted, is a pig that is neat in the head, light in the neck 



442 APPENDIX 

and shoulders, deep in the heart, thick in the loin, stout in 
the thighs, and short in the legs" — the reason being that 
changes in the curing trade and pork market have resulted 
in certain parts of the animal being of greater value per 
pound than other parts. The shoulder and neck being of 
least value, it is shown that it is a waste of food substance 
to transform it into flesh of inferior quality, if by selecting 
animals with tendencies to greater development in the more 
valuable parts a greater amount of material on the higher 
division of the scale of market values can be produced. 

Points Applicable to Most British Breeds of Sheep. — 1. A 
graceful carriage and springy style of walking. 

2. A characteristic head with good depth and strength of 
jaw, and breadth across the bridge of the nose, and full, 
bright eyes, indicating both docility and courage. 

3. The neck thick toward the trunk, tapering to the head, 
arching slightly, and not too short. 

4. The chest broad, deep, and projecting well over the 
forelegs, and descending from the neck in a perpendicular 
line. 

5. The back level and broad behind and before (except 
in the Cheviots and Lonks, which have sharp shoulder-tops 
or withers), with a uniform covering of flesh, not boggy, but 
to the touch firm and muscular; under and upper lines 
straight. 

6. The ribs well sprung, rounded and deep. 

7. The shoulders well laid and covered with firm flesh. 
The regions immediately behind the shoulders filled up. 

8. The thighs and gigots and also the arms and the fore- 
flanks fleshed well down. 

9. The rump or part near the dock well developed, though 
not too large, as is sometimes the case in Cotswolds, Border 
Leicesters, and other heavy-fleshed breeds. 

10. The quarters long and not drooping behind, and the 
spaces between them and the last ribs short. 

11. The legs straight and set well apart, not too long; the 
bone clean and fine, and neither coarse nor deficient; the 
hocks are much better slightly out than at all in or "cow- 
hocked." 



MARKET GRADES AND CLASSES 443. 

12. The characteristic wool of the special breed covering 
well the body, and particularly the belly; also the scrotum 
of the ram. 

MARKET GRADES AND CLASSES. 

The most intelligent producer of live stock should have a 
knowledge concerning the various grades and classes of live 
stock which fulfil market requirements. Very often a pro- 
ducer of stock, on account of his lack of knowledge con- 
cerning these problems, does not receive the maximum price 
for his product. In studying this problem a clear distinc- 
tion should be made between classes and grades. A class 
represents some special type of animal designated for a 
specific purpose. The term grade should be construed as 
indicating the degree of perfection attained as compared 
with the standard for the class. For example, in cattle the 
market classes are beef cattle, butcher stock, canners and 
cutters, stockers and feeders, veal calves, Texas and Western 
range cattle, and distillers, the latter two constituting sub- 
classes. The miscellaneous classes include baby beef, export 
cattle, shipping steers, dressed beef cattle and stags. Each 
of the above main classes is then subdivided into prime, 
choice, good, medium, common and inferior grades. These 
represent the principal market distinctions. In certain 
classes there are additional grades, such as fancy selected; 
this term being used in designating feeder cattle. 

The division by classes is based on use and into grades 
on conformity to this use or purpose. The designation by 
grades is based on weight, quality, conformation, maturity 
and condition. Horses, cattle, sheep and swine are all so 
classed and graded, although there are certain specific mar- 
ket terms which are used in designating each of the classes 
and grades fixed by different market requirements. 



INDEX. 



Aberdeen-Angus, nativity and 
description of, 249 
standard of excellence and scale 
of points, 250, 251 
Action, 48, 97 
defects of, 219 
of draft horse, 116 
examination of, 110 
of heavy harness horse, 135 
of jacks and jennets, 184 
of mules, 200 
Adaptation, 72 

of Angora goat, 422 
Age, determination of, in cattle, 
241, 242 
in horse, 105 
in sheep, 361 
in swine, 320 
limitations, 75 

of mules, 195 
of sheep at maturity, 375 
of swine at maturity, 321, 326 
classification, 320 
American jack, description of, 191 
Guernsey Cattle Club Notes, 295 
Merino, characteristics of, 411 
Saddle Horse, description of, 
157, 158, 159 
Association, 100 

requirements for Ameri- 
Saddle Horse, 158 
Standardbred, description of, 
150, 151, 152 
official standards, 152, 153 
Andalusian jack, nativity and de- 
scription of, 188 
Angora goats, adaptation of, 422 
breed and sex characteristics 
of, 421 



Angora goats, constitution of, 419 

fleece of, 421 

form of, 419 

general appearance of, 418 

importance of, 418 

purpose of, 418 

quality of, 419 

standard of excellence and 
scale of points of, 422 

uses of, 418 
Appendix, 429-443 
Ass, 182. See Jacks and Jennets. 
Auction rules, 438 
Ayrshire, 72 

nativity and characteristics of, 

302 
standard of excellence and scale 

of points, 303-305 



B 



Bacon hog, form of, 59 

type, 350 
Beef cattle, breed characteristics, 
of, 246-256 

brief description of, 439, 440 

capacity of, 233 

class characteristics of, 264- 
268 

condition of, 233 

conformation of, 226 

constitution of, 229 

coordination of bone and 
muscle of, 225 

determination of age of, 241 

dressing percentages of, 234 

fleshing qualities of, 228 

indications of quality of, 228 

industry, evolution and impor- 
tance of, 221 

(445) 



446 



INDEX 



Beef cattle, marbling of meat of, 
235 
nervous development of, 230 
percentage of different cuts of 

beef of, 237 
products and their uses, 223 
relation of structure to high- 
priced cuts, 223 
score card of, 246 
weight and maturity of, 231 
dressing percentages of, 234 
marbling of, 235 

percentage of different cuts of, 
237 
Belgian, nativity and characteris- 
tics of, 121, 122, 123 
Berkshire, nativity and character- 
istics of, 332 
standard of excellence and scale 
of points, 334 
Bibliography, 426-428 
Blemishes decrease value of ani- 
mal, 50 
definition of, 51 
not transmitted, 51 
one class of defects, 50 
Block tests, 85 
Bog spavins, 215 

Bone and muscle, coordination of, 
225 
indicates quality, 62, 115 
quality of, indicated by canon 

bone, 93, 95 
size of, indicates scale, 29 
Bony growths, 213 
Breed character, 70 

characteristics of Angora goat, 
421 
of beef cattle, 246-256 
of dairy cattle, 290-311 
of draft horses, 118-128 
of dual purpose cattle, 256-264 
of heavy harness horses, 136- 

145 
of jacks and jennets, 186-192 
of light harness horses, 150- 

153 
of ponies, 169-173 
of saddle horses, 157-161 
of sheep, 385-407, 411-416 
of swine, 332-350 
selection, 81 
Breeder, attributes of, 425 
two classes of, 78 



Breeders' fads, 87 
Breeding animals, conformity to 
breed type, 268 

constitution and vigor of, 269 

form of, 176, 268 

qualifications of, 70 

quality of, 176 

sex characteristics of, 178, 270 

temperament of, 177, 269 
attributes, 175 
classes of sheep, 416 
condition, 69 
requisites, 268, 314, 358 
test, 73 
Breeds, beef cattle, 246 
draft horses, 118 
dual purpose, 256 
factors contributing to their 

origin, 18 
heavy harness horses, 136 
horses, classification, 111 
jacks, 186 

light harness horses, 136 
ponies, 169 
saddle horses, 157 
sheep, 385 
swine, 332 
Brown Swiss, characteristics of, 306 

standard of excellence and 
scale of points of, 307 



Cab horse, description of, 145 
Calves, characteristics of, 267 
Canter, description of, 100 
Capacity of beef cattle, 233 
of dairy animal, 280 
how determined and developed, 65 
indicated by milk and butter 

standards, 281 
of mutton sheep, 374 
of swine, 325 
Carcass of swine, uses of, 319, 350 
Catalonian jack, nativity and de- 
scription of, 187 
Cavalry horse, characteristics of, 
164 
specifications of Quarter- 
master-General for, 165 
Cheshire, characteristics of, 348 
standard of excellence and scale 
of points of, 348 



INDEX 



447 



Chester White, characteristics of, 

340 
Cheviot, characteristics of, 399 
standard of excellence and scale 
of points of, 401 
Chunk, classes of, 131 
description of, 131 
Circulatory system, affects elabora- 
tion of milk, 30, 31, 271 
importance of, 30 
Class characteristics of beef cattle, 
264-268 
of dairy cattle, 313-314 
of draft horses, 128 
of heavy harness horses, 145 
of light harness horses, 153- 

155 
of mules, 205-210 
of ponies, 173-175 
of sheep, 416-418 
of swine, 358-360 
Classes of beef cattle, 264 
of dairy cattle, 313 
of draft horses, 128 
of heavy harness horses, 145 
of horses, 111 

of light harness horses, 153, 155 
of mules, 205 
of ponies, 173 
of saddle horses, 161 
of sheep, 416 
of swine, 360 
Classification of horses, 110 

of light horses, 133 
Cleveland Bay, description of, 141- 

145 
Clydesdale, nativity and descrip- 
tion of, 123 
Coach horse, description of, 145 
Cob, description of, 145 
Color of Guernsey, 296 

of jacks, 184 
Colts and fillies, 180 
Combination horse, description of, 

161, 162 
Condition, definition of, 68, 69, 70 
for breeding, 69 
for market, 68 
indicates healthfulness, 80 
of ass, 183 
of beef cattle, 233 
of mules, 199 
of mutton sheep, 374 
of swine, 326, 353 



Conformation of beef animals, 226 
Constitution and vigor of Angora 
goat, 419 
associated with endurance or 

durability, 115, 149 
of beef animals, 229 
of beef breeding cattle, 269 
of dairy animals, 279 
of Guernsey, 296 
of horses, draft, 115 
how determined, 63 
importance of, in breeding 

animals, 63 
of mutton sheep, 373 
of swine, 325 
Cotswold, nativity and character- 
istics of, 389 
standard of excellence and scale 
of points of, 390 
Cotton mules, description of, 209 
Craig quotation, 22 
Cribbing, 53 
indicated by condition of teeth, 
217 
Cross firing, 220 

Cruikshank, Amos, plan of breed- 
ing, 77 
Culling herds, 72 

inferior animals, 55 
Curb, 216 



Dairy cattle, breed characteristics 
of, 290-311 

breeding requisites of, 314 

capacity of, 280 

as indicated by milk and 
butter standards, 281 

class characteristics of, 313- 
314 

classes of, 313 

constitution of, 279 

durability and persistency of, 
284 

form of, 273 

function of, 274 

mammary system of, 282 

nervous temperament of, 280 

purpose of, 271 

quality of, 277 

score card of, 289 

structural form and examina- 
tion of, 284-289 



448 



INDEX 



Dairy cattle, wedges of, 59, 274, 
276, 277, 278 
classes, calves, 314 

heifer development, 313 
mature form, 313 
form of, 273 
function of, 274 

correlation with other factors 
of, 275 
records measure productiveness 
of, 82, 83, 85 
are reliable when covering long 
period, 83 
temperament of Guernsey, 296 
Deafness, indicated by lack of ear 

movement, 217 
Deception from trimming, 375 
Decisions, uniformity of, 44 
Defects, exterior, classified, 50 

in way of going, 219 
Delaine Merino, characteristics of, 
413 
standard of excellence and 
scale of points of, 414 
Detailed structural form of beef 
animal, 242 
of dairy animal, 284-289 
of horse, 100 
of mules, 201 
of sheep, 365 
of swine, 329-331 
Devons, nativity and characteris- 
tics of, 262 
standard of excellence and scale 
of points of, 263 
Digestive system, factors indicat- 
ing a strong, 30 
importance of, 30 
Disease of frog, 218 
Dorset Horn, characteristics of, 402 
standard of excellence and 
scale of points of, 403 
Draft animals, breeds of horses, 118 
conformation of, 113 
group or type of, 113 
temperament or nervous de- 
velopment of, 67 
mules, description of, 205 
or short leet, 56 
Drafter, description of, 128, 129 
Dressing percentages of cattle, 234 

of swine, 327, 328, 329 
Dual purpose breeds, 256 
Durability of dairy animal, 284 



Durability of light harness horse, 

149 
Duroc-Jersey, characteristics of, 
339 
scale of points of, 340 
Dutch Belted, nativity and char- 
acteristics of, 308 
standard of excellence and 
scale of points of, 310 
Dwelling, 220 



E 



Ears of horses, jacks, jennets and 

mules, 216 
Endurance associated with consti- 
tution, 115, 149 

of mules, 200 

or speed records, 85 
Essex, characteristics of, 347 
Established herds, 82 
Expresser, description of, 132 

overlaps other classes, 112 
Eyes, description of, 2l7 

indicate certain characters, 217 



Fads of breeders, 87 

Farm mules, description of, 206 

Fat cattle, characteristics of, 264 

hog, form of, 59 

production, dependent upon ner- 
vous development, 32 

sheep and lambs, characteristics 
of, 417 

type of swine, 320 
Feeders, characteristics of, 265, 

360, 418 
Feet, diseases of, 218 
Fine- wool breeds, 385, 411 
Fistula, location and detection of, 

218, 434 
Fleece, Angora, 421 

characteristics of, 377 

lustre of, 381 

method of examination of, 378 

purity of, 381 

quality of, 379 

quantity of, 380 

soundness of, 383 

types of, 377 



INDEX 



449 



Fleece, variation in, 384 

yolk of, 381 
Form of Angora goat, 419 

of ass, 183 

of bacon hog, 59, 60, 352, 353 

of beef cattle, 226 

of breeding cattle, 268 
horses, 176 

of dairy cow, 59, 273, 276, 277 

of draft horse, 113 

of horse, detailed structural, 100 

of light harness horse, 147 

of meat animals, 58, 59, 60 

of mules, 197 

of mutton sheep, 371 

relation of, to utility, 95 

of speed animals, 59, 60 

of swine, 322, 350, 352 

of wool sheep, 60 
Forging, 219, 434 
Fox trot described, 100 
Framework affects development of 
digestive system, 30 
muscular development, 29 

compared with that of man, 91 

determines scale, 28, 29 

of swine, 317 

of young animal, 181 
French Canadian, characteristics 
of, 308 

Coach, nativity and description 
of, 136 

Draft, 120. See Percheron. 
Fundamental considerations in 

judging horses, 89 



G 



Gallop described, 100 

Galloway, nativity and character- 
istics of, 254 
points to be avoided in, 255 
standard of excellence of, 255 

Gaited saddle horse, 163 

Gaits, description of, 98, 99, 100 
of gaited saddle horse, 163 
of speed or race horse, 153 
of walk-trot-canter horse, 163 

Gaskin, a guide to muscular devel- 
opment, 93 

Gay, 62, 91, 97, 112, 219 

General appearance, 58 
29 



German Coach, nativity and de- 
scription of, 137, 138 
Glossary of horse and mule market 

terms, 431 
Goats, Angora, 418 
Guernsey, explanatory notes by 
American Guernsey Cattle 
Club, 295-297 
nativity and characteristics of, 

293 
standard of excellence and scale 
of points of, 294-295 



H 



Hackney, nativity and descrip- 
tion of, 139-141 
pony, description and require- 
ments of, 173 
Halter pulling, 53 
Hampshire hog, disqualifications 
of, 346 
nativity and characteristics of, 

343 
standard of excellence and 
scale of points of, 344 
sheep, characteristics of, 393 
standard of excellence and 
scale of points of, 394 
Handling, amount of, 49 
animals, 49 

generally undesirable, 47 
quality, how determined, 49 
to determine mammary develop- 
ment, 49 
Healthfulness, 80 
Heaves, indications of, 217 
Heavy harness group or type, 
action of, 135 
breed characteristics of, 

136 
general description of, 

133, 134 
market and show classes 

of, 136 
quality of, 134 
temperament of, 134 
Height of horse, how measured, 60 

Shetland pony, 61 
Herd improvement, 423 

use of pure-bred sire in, 423 
records, 82 
uniformity, 71 



450 



INDEX 



Hereford, characteristics of, 252 
standard of excellence and scale 
of points of, 253 
Holstein-Friesian, 72 

disqualifications for advanced 

registry, 302 
nativity and characteristics of, 

298 
standard of excellence and scale 
of points of, 299-301 
Hoof, description of normal, 218 

diseases and defects of, 218 
Horns, indication of age by, 242 
Horse, detailed structural form of, 
100 
examination for faults, 211 

in stable, 53 
fundamental considerations in 

judging, 89 
mechanical structure of, 92 
propelling power of, 96 
relation of bone and muscular 

development of, 92, 96 
tests for unsoundness and vices 
in, 53, 108, 109 
Horses, breed characteristics of, 
118-128, 136-145, 150, 157- 
161 
classification of, 110, 111 
examination of, in harness, 218 
Hunter, requirements for, 164 



Individuality and pedigree, 76 

how determined, 63 

or thrift, 74 
Interfering, 219 
Italian jack, description of, 190 



Jacks and jennets, breed charac- 
teristics of, 186 

color of, 184 

description of American, 191 

form, scale, and quality of, 
183 

general appearance of, 182 

nervous development of, 184 

score card for, 186 

selection of, 185 



Jacks and jennets, sex character- 
istics of, 184 

soundness and condition of, 
183 

structure of, 182 

style and action of, 184 

uses of, 185 
Jersey, nativity and characteris- 
tics of, 290 
standard of excellence and scale 

of points of, 291 
Judging Angora goats, 418 

application of, to improvement, 

423 
beef and dual purpose cattle, 221 
breeding classes, horses, 175 
by comparison, 41, 43 
colts and fillies, 180 
consideration of fads in, 87, 88 
dairy cattle, 271 
as distinguished from selection, 

36, 52 
definition of, 35 
draft horses, 113 
factors and principles applicable 

to, 57 
horses, 89 

importance of keen, 19 
jacks, jennets, and mules, 182 
light horses, 133 
methods and practices in, 35 

by purchaser, 108 
objects of, 36 

relation of structure to, 24-27 
requires wide knowledge of 

animals, 36, 37, 425 
requirements for, 22, 23, 37, 42- 

44 
sheep, 361 
should be prompt and thorough, 

54, 55 
in show ring, 41, 108, 109 
swine, 317 

use of ideals and standards in, 
37-39, 42-45 

of score card in, 38, 39 

of system in, 46 



Kerry, nativity and characteris- 
tics of, 310 
scale of points of, 311 



INDEX 



451 



Lameness, causes of, 214, 215, 216 
detection of, in horses, 108 
locating, 213 
Large Yorkshire, characteristics of, 
355 
standard excellence and scale 
of points of, 356 
Leicester, characteristics of, 387 
standard of excellence and scale 
of points of, 388 
Light harness group or type, 
breeds of, 150 
classes of, 150 
conformation of, 147, 148, 

149 
durability of, 149 
quality of, 149 
temperament of, 149 
two distinct types of, 
147 
Lincoln, nativity and characteris- 
tics of, 385 
standard of excellence and scale 
of points of, 387 
Lineage of animals, 79 
Live stock industry, field of devel- 
opment of, 18 
method of development of, 

17, 18 
possibilities of, 21 
judging, defined, 35 
shows, importance of, 426 
value of, 20 
Logger, description of, 129 
Long-wool breeds, 385 
Lymphatic temperament of beef 
animals, 67-68 
of draft animals, 67 



M 

Maltese jack, nativity and de- 
scription of, 189 
Mammary organs of dairy cow, 
282-284 
of special importance in dairy 

animals, 31 
use of hands in judging devel- 
opment of, 49 
system, 282, 288 
veins in dairy cow, 283, 288 



Majorca jack, nativity and descrip- 
tion of, 190 
Marbling of meat, 235 
Market classes of mules, 205 
of sheep, 361 
of wool, 383 
condition, 68 
grades and classes, 443 
value of swine, bacon, 354 
Maturity, age of, in beef cattle, 
231 
in different animals, 77 
in mutton sheep, 375 
in swine, 326 
Measuring height of horse, 60 
Medium-wool breeds, 385, 391 
Merino sheep, 60 
American, 411 
Delaine, characterics of, 413 
standard of excellence and 
scale of points of, 414 
Middle Yorkshire, characteristics 

of, 346 
Milk production dependent upon 

nervous development, 32 
Mining mules, description of, 208 
Mule mares, qualifications of, 203 
-foot swine, characteristics of, 
349 
scale of points of, 350 
Mules, age limitations of, 195 
condition of, 199 
cotton, 209 
draft, 205 
farm, 206 
general conformation of, 197 

requirements of, 193 
height and weight of, 195 
market classes of, 205 
mining, 208 
quality of, 198 
score card for, 203 
soundness of, 200 
structural form and qualifica- 
tions of, 201 
style and action of, 200 
sugar, 207 
temperament and endurance of, 

200 
uses and adaptation of, 193 
Muscular development depends 
upon bony framework, 28 
of different parts should be 
correlated, 96 



452 



INDEX 



MuscuJar development, relation of 
bone to, 92, 93, 225, 226 
value of animals dependent 
upon, 29 
Mutton type, characteristics of, 
371-377 



N 



Natural thrift, 74 
Nerve cutting, 52 
Nervous development of ass, 184 
of beef cattle, 230 
characterization of, 32 
controls temperament, 68 
correlation with other func- 
tions, 32, 97 
indicates use and value of 

animal, 32, 33 
in different classes of animals, 
32, 67 
temperament of dairy breeds, 
67, 280, 281 
indicates endurance, 97 

milk production, 67 
of speed horses, 67 
Norman, 120. See Percheron. 
Nostrils, description of, 217 



Official standard of the American 
Trotting Register Association, 
152 
O. I. C. swine, characteristics of, 
341 
standard of excellence and 
scale of points of, 341 
Open joint, 215 

Operations prastised to improve 
show condition, 51 
should be discriminated against, 
51-52 
Oxford, characteristics of, 397 
standard of excellence and scale 
of points of, 399 



Pace described, 100 
Pacing standard, 152, 153 
Paddling, 219 



Pampered condition, 69 

Park horse, 145 

Parrot mouth, 217, 435 

Pedigree and individuality, 76 
not all important, 74, 75 
should be considered, 78, 79 

Percentage of different cuts in 
swine, 327, 328, 329 

Percheron, nativity and descrip- 
tion of, 118-121 

Persistency of dairy animal, 284 

Point of approach, 46, 47 

Pointing, 220 

Poitou jack, nativity and descrip- 
tion of, 188 

Poland-China, disqualifications of, 
338 
nativity and characteristics of, 

334 
standard of excellence and 
scale of points of, 336-338 

Polled Durham, breed character- 
istics of, 247, 248 

Polo ponies, description and re- 
quirements of, 173 

Ponies between 11-2 and 14-2, 175 
description of, 173 
under 46 inches, 174 

Pony, breeds of, 169 
classes of, 173 
group or type of, 169 

Position of animals for judging, 45 

Pounding, 220 

Prepotency, definition of, 74 
of Guernsey, 297 

Productiveness, 74 

Propelling power, 96 

Pure-bred live stock associations, 
429 



Q 



Quality of Angora goat, 419 
fleece, 421 
of breeding animals, 176 
of dairy animals, 277 
of draft horse, 114, 115 
of fleece, 379 

of heavy harness horse, 134 
how determined, 62 
indications of, in beef cattle, 228 

in horses, draft, 114, 115 
of light harness horse, 149 
of mules, 198 



INDEX 



453 



Quality of mutton sheep, 373 

of swine, 323, 351 
Quantity of fleece, 380 



Rack described, 100 
Rambouillet, characteristics of, 415 
Red Polled, disqualifications of, 
260, 261 
nativity and characteristics 

of, 258 
standard of excellence and 
scale of points of, 259, 261 
Registry associations, pure-bred 

live stock, 429 
Regularity of breeding, 74 
Reproductive system affects value 

of animals, 31, 32 
Reynolds, M. H., 211 
Ringbone, location and effect of, 

214, 436 
Roadster, description of, 153, 155 
Roaring, 53 
Rolling, 220 

Romney, nativity and character- 
istics of, 403 
Rudimentary teats of Guernsey, 

297 
Runabout horse, description of, 

112, 145 
Running horse, description and re- 
quirements of, 167, 168 
walk described, 100 



S 



Saddle group or type, breeds of, 

157 
Scale of ass, 183 

determined by bony framework, 

28 
fixed by height and weight, 61 
at maturity, 29 
of mules, 195 
Scalping, 220, 436 
Score card for bacon swine, 354 

carcass determination, 35 1 
for beef cattle, 246 
for dairy cattle, 289 
for draft horses, 117 
for fat swine, 332 



Score card for fine- wool sheep, 410 

for heavy harness horses, 146 

for jacks, 186 

for light harness horses, 155, 
156 

for mules, 203 

for mutton sheep, 384 

for saddle horses, 168 

for Shetland ponies, 171 

use of, 38, 39 
Selection of a breed, 81 

as distinguished from judging, 36 
factors and principles of, 57 
importance of, 19 
of a jack, 185 
possibilities of, 21, 22 
suggestions on, 78 
Sex characteristics of Angora goat, 
421 

of ass, 184 

of breeding cattle, 270 
horses, 178 

of swine, 359 
Sheep, breed characteristics of, 

385-407, 411-416 
breeding classes of, 416 
capacity of, 374 
class requirements of, 416-418 
condition of, 374 
constitution of, 373 
deception by trimming of, 375 
determination of age of, 361 
examination of, 50, 365 
fat, 417 
feeder, 418 

fine- wool breeds of, 411 
fleece characteristics of, 377 
form of, 371, 407 
market classes of, 361 
maturity of, 375 
mutton type of, 371 
points applicable to most British 

breeds of, 442 
purpose of, 361 
quality of, 373, 409 
score card for mutton type, 384 

for fine- wool type, 410 
types of, 385 
use of products of, 361 
variation in fleece of, 384 
weight of, 371 
Shetland, 61, 169 

description and requirements of, 

169, 170 



454 



INDEX 



Shetland, score card for, 171 
Shire, nativity and description of, 

125 
Shoe boil, 216, 436 
Shorthorn, dual purpose charac- 
teristics of, 256 
nativity and description of, 246 
Short leet, 56 

Shoulders, examination of, 218 
Shropshire, characteristics of, 391 
standard of excellence and scale 
of points of, 393 
Sidebones, 214, 436 
Small Yorkshire, characteristics of, 

346 
Soundness of ass and mule, 183 
general examination for, 212 
of mules, 200 
relation of, to utility, 211 
Southdown, characteristics of, 395 
standard of excellence and scale 
of points of, 397 
Spavin, 214, 215 
Speed or race horse, 153 

records the result of breeding, 85 
Speedy cutting, 220, 437 
Splints, 213, 214, 437 
Standardbred. See American stan- 

dardbred. 
Stockers, 267 

Structure analogous with that of 
man, 91 
of ass, 182 
of swine, 317 

relation of, to animal judging, 
24-27 
to high-prcied cuts, 223 
Structural form of beef cattle, 242 
of dairy animal, 284-289 
of horse, 100 
of mules, 201 
of swine, 329-331 
Style and action of draft horse, 116 
of jacks and jennets, 184 
of mules, 200 
Sub-class of horses, 111 
Substance, definition of, 62 
Suffolk horse, nativity and char- 
acteristics of, 127-128 
sheep, characteristics of, 405 
Sugar mules, 207 
Sussex, nativity and characteris- 
tics, 256 
Sweeney, 218, 437 



Swine, age of, determination of, 320 

of classes, 320 

at maturity, 326 

weight of fat, 321 
bacon type of, 350 
breed characteristics of, 332, 355 
breeding and feeding capacity 
of, 325 

requisites of, 358 
carcass of, uses of, 319, 350 
class characteristics of, 358, 360 
constitution and vigor of, 325 
details of form of, 329-331 
dressing percentage of, 327-329 
fat type of, 320 
form or conformation of, 322, 

352, 353 
general considerations of, 320 
indications and value of quality 

of, 323, 351 
meaning and value of condition 

of, 326, 353 
market value of, 353, 354 
maturity of, 326 
percentage of cuts of, 327-329 
points applicable to all breeds of, 

440-442 
purpose and method of use of, 

319, 350 
score card for bacon, 354 

for fat, 332 
sex characteristics of, 359 
structure of, 317 
type classification of, 320 
weight of bacon type of, 351 
Symmetry, 66 
Synovial sacs, 215 
System, use of, in judging, 46 



Tamworth, 60 

characteristics of, 357 
standard of excellence of, 358 
Teeth, "bishoping" of, 52, 105 
disappearance of cups in, 108 
how to determine age by, 105 
indicate age of heef cattle, 241, 
242 
of sheep, 361, 363 
normal and abnormal condition 

of, 217 
order of appearance of, 107 



INDEX 



455 



Teeth, temporary or milk, 106 
Temperament of breeding cattle, 
269 
horses, 177 

of dairy cow, 67, 280 

definition of, 67 

depends upon nervous develop- 
ment, 32, 67 

of draft animals, 67, 116 

of Guernsey, 296 

of heavy harness horse, 134 

indicates use and value, 32 

of light harness horse, 149 

of mules, 200 

of speed animals, 67 
Thoroughbred, breeding and de- 
scription of, 159-161 
Thoroughpins, 215, 437 
Trappy, 220 
Trot described, 98-99 
Trotting standard, 152 
Tuberculin test by purchaser, 81 
Tuberculosis, 81 
Tunis, characteristics of, 406 
Type of breeding animals, 268 
Types of horses, 111, 112 

of light horses, 133 

of ponies, 169 

of sheep, 371, 385, 407 

of swine, 320 

of wool, 377 



U 



Udder of dairy cow, 283 
Unsoundness affects value of horse, 
89 
definition of, 211 
detection of, 49, 108 
examination for, 211 
may be transmitted, 51 
one of common defects, 50 
regovery from, 51 
Utility, relation of form to, 95 

soundness to, 211 
Utilization of beef cattle products, 
223 
of sheep products, 361 



Vices, detection of, in horse, 109 
Victoria, characteristics of, 347 



W 

Walk described, 98 
Walk-trot-canter horse, descrip- 
tion of, 162, 163 
Weaving, 53 
Wedge shape of dairy cow, 59, 273, 

276, 277, 278 
Weight, 60 

of bacon swine, 351 

a factor in determining scale, 
61 

of mutton sheep, 371 
Welsh ponies, description and re- 
quirements of, 171-173 
Whistling, 53 
Wind puffs, 215 

sucking, 53 
Winding, 219 
Winging, 219, 437 
Withers, troubles affecting, 217, 

218 
Wool, clothing, 383 

combing 384 

delaine, 384 

lustre of, 381 

market classification of, 383 

purity of, 381 

quality of, 379 

quantity of, 380 

soundness of, 383 

types of, 377 

yolk of, 381 



Young stock, characteristics of, 

360 
Yorkshire, Large, 60, 355. See 

Middle Yorkshire, and Small 

Yorkshire, 346. 




LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



002 823 454 5 W 



